CHAPTER-7

TIMBER

Definition:

The word timber is derived from an old English word timbrian which means to
build. The timber denotes wood which is suitable for building or carpentry on various
engineering purpose and it is applied to the trees measuring not less than 600mm in the
circumference of the trunk.

Characteristics of good Timber:

Following are the characteristics of good timber

1. It should be heavy and uniform colour.

2. It should have regular annular rings.

3. A freshly cut surface should give a sweet smell.

4. It should have straight and close fiber.

5. It should be sonorous when struck.

6. It should be heavy in weight.

7. It should be free from shacks, flaws, dead, knots of any kind.

8. The cellular tissue of the medullary rays should be hard and compact.

9. When planed, its surface should present a firm bright appearance with a silky lustre.

10. A good timber should be strong for working as structural member such as joints,
beams, rafters, etc. it should be capable of taking loads slowly or suddenly.

Advantages of Timber:

Following are the advantages of timber

1. It is light in weight yet strong.

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 2. It is easily available and can be quickly transported by simple means.

3. The floor joints in an average dwelling weighs less than rolled-steel beams of equal
strength.

4. Boards may be cut rapidly by a saw and fastened firmly together with nails.

5. It is a good insulator of heat and sound.

6. When properly protected timber structures may be give good service for hundred of
years.

7. It stands shocks and bumps, a good deal better than iron and concrete.

8. Repairs, additions and alterations to timber construction are easy.

9. On account of its light weight, timber is generally preferred for building works in
earthquake region.

10. It is considered to be an ideal material of construction in sea water or marine works as

Dis-Advantages of Timber:

Following are the dis-advantages of timber

1. The greatest disadvantage is its ready combustibility, which can be diminished but not
eliminated even by expensive treatment.

2. Frame buildings built closely together present a serious conflagration hazard.

3. Timber swells and undergoes shrinkage with changing atmospheric humidity.

Uses of Timber:

Following are the uses of timber

1. It is generally used in the form of piles, posts, beams, lintels, door-window frames,
and leaves, roof members, etc.

2. It is employed for flooring, ceiling, paneling, and construction of partition walls.

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 3. It is used for formwork for concrete, for the timbering trenches, centering for arch
work, scaffolding, transmission poles and fencing.

4. It is used in wagons and coach building, marine installations bridges.

CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE OF TIMBER :

For the engineering purposes, the trees are classified in to two categories.

i.e- [Link] Tree 2. Endogenous Tree

Exogenous Tree:

1. These trees are grow outwards and increase in bulk by the formation of successive
annular rings on the outside under the bark.

2. In these trees, each annual ring represents layer of wood, deposited every year.

3. Example:- Deodar, Chir, Sal, Kail, Shishum, Teak.

4. The Exogenous trees may be further classified into two categories:

1. Conifers Tree 2. Deciduous or broad-leafs trees

Endogenous Tree:

1. These trees are grows inwards or endwards.

2. The steams of these trees are too flexible and thus they are not much suitable for
engineering works.

Structure of Tree:

A tree basically consists of three parts namely :- trunk, crown, and roots.

From the visibility aspect, the structure f a tree can be divided into two categories:

I. Macrostructure

II. Microstructure

Macrostructure:
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 Following are the different components

1. Pith:- The innermost center person or core of the tree is called the pith or medullar. It
varies in size and shape for different types of trees, it consist entirely of cellular
tissues and it nourishes the plant in its young age when the plant becomes old the pith
dies up.

2. Heart wood:- The inner annual rings surrounding the pith constitute the heart wood.
It is usually dark in colour it indicate dead portion f tree. But it provides strong and
durable timber for various engineering purpose.

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 3. Sap wood:- The outer annual rings between heart wood and cambium layer is known
as the sap wood. It is usually light in colour and weight. It indicates recent growth of
sap woods are less sharply defined then those of heart wood.

4. Cambium layer:- The thin layer of sap between sap wood and inner bark is known as
cambium layer. If the bark is removed for any reason the cambium layer gets exposed
and the cells are cease to be active resulting in the death of tree.

5. Inner bark:- The inner skin or layer covering the cambium layer is known as the
inner bark. It gives protection to the cambium layer from any injury.

6. Outer bark:- The outer skin or cover of the tree is known as the outer bark. It is the
outer most protective layer and it sometimes contains cracks. It is also known as the
Cortex.

7. Medullary ray:- The thin radial fibers extending from pith to cambium layer are
known as the medullar rays. The functions of these rays are to hold together the
annual rings of heart wood and sap wood. These rays are sometimes broken.

Micro structure:

The structure of wood apparent only at great magnification is called the

A living cell consists of the following 4 parts:

I. Membrane

II. Protoplasm

III. Sap

IV. Core

The dead cell consists of following 3 parts:

I. Conductive cell

II. Mechanical cell

7.2 Defects in Timber:

The defects occurs in timber are grouped in to following five categories

1. Defects due to conversion

2. Defects due to fungi

3. Defects due to insects

4. Defects due to natural forces

5. Defects due to seasoning

(1) Defects due to conversion: In this case, the following defects may occurs:

I. Chip mark

II. Diagonal grain

III. Torn grain

IV. Wane

(2) Defects due to fungi: The fungi are minute microscopic plant organism. They attack
timber only when the following two conditions are satisfied.

I. The moisture content f timber is above 20%.

II. There are presences of air and warmth for the growth of fungi.

Following defects are occurs in the timber by fungi:

I. Blue stain

II. Brown rot

III. Dry rot

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 IV. Heart rot

V. Sap rot

VI. Wet rot

VII. White rot

(3) Defects due to insects: Following are the insects which are usually responsible for the
decay in timber;

I. Beetles

II. Marine borers

III. Termites

(4) Defects due to natural forces: The main natural forces responsible for causing defects in
timber. Following are the defects are caused by these forces:

I. Burls

II. Callus

III. Chemical Stain

IV. Coarse Grain

V. Dead Wood

VI. Druxiness

VII. Foxiness

VIII. Knots

IX. Rind Galls

X. Shakes

XI. Twisted Fiber

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 XII. Upsets

XIII. Water Stain

XIV. Wind Crack

(5) Defects due to seasoning: Following are the defects occurs due to seasoning:

I. Bow

II. Case-hardening

III. Check

IV. Collapse

V. Cup

VI. Honey-combing

VII. Radial Shakes

VIII. Twist

IX. Warp

Rind gall:
A defect in timber caused by a bruise in the bark which produces a callus on the wood
over which later layers grow without consolidating. Or
A defect in timber caused by a bruise in the bark which produces a callus upon the
wood over which the later layers grow without consolidating. Laslett, Timber and Timber
Trees.

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Knots

Knots are cut or broken off limbs or sprout branches, green or dead, protruding, flush, or
depressed, but with exposed sound or rotten wood. If the exposed wood is sound, the knot is
"sound"; if rotten, it is "unsound".

Knots are common blemishes in trees, often causing lumps or holes within the trunk
of the tree itself. In most cases knots are caused by the natural growth of the tree, though the
specific circumstances under which they form determines how they will appear. Some knots
are formed by fungal infections, however, and can spread to other trees on your property as
well.

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Quality of good Timber:

In general, the quality of god timber depends upon the following factors

1. Environmental condition of the locality.

2. Maturity of the tree.

3. Method of seasoning.

4. Nature of soil.

5. Process of preservation.

6. Time of felling.

7.3 Decay of Timber:

The timber is said to be decayed when it is so deteriorated that it losses its

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 Following are the various causes which favored the early decay of the timber:

1. Alternate dry and wet condition.

2. Bad storage or stacking of timber.

3. Improper seasoning.

4. Keeping timber in contact with dampness.

5. Use of timber without taking sap wood from its structure.

6. Using unseasoned timber without applying suitable preservative on its surface.

Preservation of Timber:

The preservation of timber is carried out to achieve the following three

1. To increase the life of timber structures.

2. To make the timber structures durable.

3. To protect the timber structures from the attack of destroying agents.

Requirements of a good Preservation;

Following are the requirements of a good preservation:

1. It should be capable of covering a large area with small quantity.

2. It should be free from unpleasant smell.

3. It should be non-inflammable.

4. It should be quit efficient in killing fungi, insects etc.

5. It should not affect the strength characteristic of timber.

7.4 Seasoning of timber:

1. Seasoning of timber is the process of drying timber or removing moisture or sap,

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 2. Freshly felled timber contains a large quantity of moisture roughly from 100 to 200%
based on dry weight of timber.

Objectives of seasoning

Following are the objectives of seasoning

1. To minimize the tendency of timber to shrink.

2. To increase the strength.

3. To make the timber safe against fungi and insects.

4. To make the timber easily workable in any shape.

5. To make the timber suitable for gluing.

No. Type of timber Thickness in mm

12 25 38 50

1 Non-refractory 6 Days 8 Days 12 Days 17 Days

2 Moderately refractory 7 Days 10 Days 14 Days 18 Days

3 Highly refractory 9 Days 12 Days 17 Days 22 Days

Diseases of Timber:
The common diseases of the timber are
I. Dry rot

II. Wet rot

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Timbers are suitable for various uses:

[Link]. Application/Uses Timber

1 Sports goods and baskets. Ash, Oak, Mulberry.

2 Match industry. Pine, Simul.

3 Bulk carts. Babul.

4 Musical instruments. Jack.

5 Railway sleepers. Deodar, Kail, Sal, Ash.

6 Well curbs. Mango, Jack, Simul.

7 Doors and Windows. Sal, Deodar.

8 Scaffolding Bamboo, Sal.

9 Agricultural tools Babu, Ash, Mulberry.

10 High class journey and furniture Teak, Shishum, Walnut.

7.5 Plywood:

Plywood is made by cementing together several layers of wood which may be

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The advantages of plywood are

1. Better appearance.

2. Easily workable and capable of being shared to numerous design.

3. Uniform tensile strength in all direction.

4. Light in weight and greater strength.

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