College of engineering and management 6/30/2023

Chapter 7: Timber
• Timber are obtained from tree.
• Wood includes all types of wood which may be burning wood, structural wood,
furniture wood etc.
• But Wood suitable for building or other engineering purposes( ie structural
member) is called timber.
• From the prehistoric times to till date timber has been used in a variety of ways in
building construction, bridge construction, in tunnels and may other engineering
activities.

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Timber
Various Stages:
Standing timber: timber available in a living tree
Green timber: freshly felled tree which has not lost much of moisture.
Rough timber: timber after felling a tree.
Converted timber: When it has been sawn to various market forms such as beams,
planks, battens it is called converted timber
Structural timber: timber used in framing and load bearing structure:

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Classification of Timber (Growth Manner)

Depending on the mode of growth trees are classified into two categories as:
a. Endogenous
b. Exogenous
a. Endogenous trees:
• The trees that grow inwards in a longitudinal fibrous mass such as banana,
bamboo, palm and cane.
• Even though the stem of trees of this class is light and though yet it is too flexible
that it is not suitable for engineering works with exception to bamboo.

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Classification of Timber (Growth Manner)

b. Exogenous trees:
• The trees that grow outward by the addition of one concentric ring every year.
• These rings are known as annual ring. Since one ring is added to the tree every
year so the number of annual rings in the stem of tree indicates its age in years.
• The timber obtained from this class of trees is extensively used in engineering
works.
• Eg. Sal, Shishau, Babur, Pine etc.

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Classification of Timber (Growth Manner)

Timber available from exogenous trees is further classified into two categories:
a. Conifers or evergreens
b. Deciduous.
a. Conifers or evergreens:
• They are evergreen tree, bear fruit in a cone form.
• These are trees with needle pointed leaves.
• These trees yield soft wood not much used structure purposed.
Eg. Deodar, pine, chir, and kaii belong to this class
b. Deciduous:
• They shed their leaves in autumn and new leaves appears in spring.
• these trees are having broad leaves, yielding Hard wood.
• Timber uses in engineering purposed.
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Teak, sal, shisham belong to this class. 5

Advantages of timber
Timber are widely used in engineering purposed due to following region:
• Availability: available throughout world.
• Workability: shape and size of timber can be easily altered and different pieces of wood
can be join together by simple joints with simple tools.
• Aesthetic value: wood is used a decorative materials, design easily, each timber has own
colour and pleasure colour.
• Comfort: Timber has high insulating value and helps to maintain better thermal comfort
than other material
• Salvage Value: high salvage value, hence not wasted. Wood is easy to repair and
maintaining.
• Shock Absorption: Good absorption of shock and vibration and hence widely used as
flooring in auditorium hall, stages.
• It is strong and durable,
• It has resistance to decay or rot,
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Disadvantages of timber
• Less resistance to weathering, fungi and fire

• Timber is vulnerable to biotic forces like termites, woodworm or wood ants

• Less life periods of construction

• Due to humidity it swells and undergoes shrinkage

• Now a day not available easily so it is expensive.

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Uses of timber
Timber is used for the following works:
• For heavy construction works like columns, trusses, piles.
• For light construction works like doors, windows, flooring and roofing.
• For other permanent works like for railway sleepers, fencing poles, electric poles and
gates.
• For temporary works in construction like scaffolding, centering, shoring and strutting,
packing of materials.
For decorative works like showcases and furniture's.
• For body works of buses, lorries, trains and boat
• For industrial uses like pulps (used in making papers), card boards, wall papers.
• For making sports goods and musical instruments.

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Characteristic of good timber

• Straight and compacted fiber.
• Uniform color
• Freshly cut surface should give a sweet smell
• Give clear ringing sound when struck
• Heavy weight ( relatively- 650 kg/m3)
• Free from shakes, knots, cracks and ruptures
• Silky luster and smooth surface
• No clogging while sawing
• Compacted medullary rays
• Resistance against fungi, insects and other environmental attack and fire
• Durable as well as workable
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Structure of timber
Structure of Timber
• Pith
• Hearth wood
• Sap wood
• Cambium layer
• Bark
• Medullary ray
• Annual Ring

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Structure of timber
Pith:
• it is innermost part of tree. It is the first formed portion of the stem of tree
• The pith, which when the plant is young contains a large amount of fluid and nourishes
the plant. It dies up and decays when the plant becomes old.
Heart Wood:
• Innermost ring surrounding the pith constitute the heart wood. It is dead part of wood.
• The wood is darker in color, stronger more compact and durable.
Sap wood:
• outer annual rings of the tree constitute the sap wood which transmits the sap from
roots to branches.
• Compared with heart wood sap wood is lighter in color, weaker and more liable to
decay or fungi, ants attack.
Growth active part.
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Structure of timber
Cambium layer:
• outermost one ring between the bark and sap( ie. outer annual ring) which is not yet
converted into wood is known as cambium layer.
• Process forming of annual ring.
• If the cambium layer is exposed by removing the bark, the cells cease to be active and
results in death of tree.
Bark:
• it is outermost protective covering of cells and woody fibers on a tree. In course of
time older layers split and scale off.
Medullary rays:
• these are thin horizontal veins radiating from the pith towards the bark.
• They carry sap from outside to the inner parts of tree and nourish it.
They keep the annual rings tightly gripped
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Structure of timber
Annual Ring:-
• The rings of woody fibre arranged in concentric circle around the pith are known as
annual rings because one such ring is added every year
• The no of annual ring indicates age of tree.

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Defects of Timber
Defects of timber are mostly of two types:
1. Those develop during the growth of tree
2. Those developed after the tree has been felled
1. Defects developed during the growth of tree
Star shakes:
• These are radial splits wider on the surface of the tree and becoming narrower as they
moves towards the centre.
• They are caused by severe frost or by severe heat of the sun
Heart shakes:
• These are wide splits running right through the heart wood of the tree.
• These splits from the pith running towards the sap wood.
• These are caused by the shrinkage of interior parts or by decay because of
accumulated mixture.
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Defects of Timber
Cup and Ring Shake:
• These are curved splits separating one annual ring
from the adjacent one either wholly or partly.
• These are caused by strong winds and by the excessive
frost action on the moisture present in the tree.
Twisting Fibers:
• Fibers are twisted by strong winds turning the tree constantly
in one direction.
• Trees in exposed position or on hill tops are the most affected
Ring Galls:
• These are peculiar swelling caused generally by the growth of layers
of sapwood over wounds remaining after a branch of tree has been
imperfectly cut off.
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Defects of Timber
Knot:
• Caused when the branch of tree are cut off or stop growing.
• A knot is either a root of a branch that is embedded in the stem with the formation of
annual rings at right angle to those of stem or the tissues set in concentric circles.
Dead knot: can be separated from body of wood
Live knot: can not separated from timber.
Upsets:
During growth, fibers are sometime injured due to crushing or rupture or compression
results in breaking of continuous of fiber.
Callus:
• It indicates soft tissue or skin which cover the tree.

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Defects of Timber
2. Those developed after the tree has been felled.
Dry Rot:
• It is attack on timber by fungus.
• The fungus reduces the timbers to a dry powder.
• To prevent dry rot only well seasoned timber should be used.
• There should also be free access to fresh air to all parts of timber
Wet Rot
• It is decay of timber due to alternate wetting and drying
( ie effect of fungi chemically decomposition of wood of timber).
• To prevent wet timber should be prevented against alternate wetting and drying.
• It should be so used that it should be wholly submerged in water or it is always dry.
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Seasoning

• The process of removal of moisture content along with improving some

qualities before the use of wood is called Seasoning of Timber.

• Normally about (45-50)% free water contained in the tree.

• By seasoning, Generally the moisture reduced to 12-15%.

• This reduces the chances of decay, improves load bearing properties,

reduces weight, and exhibits more favorable properties like thermal &
electrical insulation etc.

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Seasoning
Objective of Seasoning:

• Reduction of Weight
• Increase in strength
• Improvement of workability
• Freedom from shrinkage defects, warp and split.
• Longer life and durability safe from attack of fungi and insects
• Easy to maintain the shape and size
• To make fit for painting and gluing.

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Seasoning
Methods of Seasoning of Timber

There are mainly two methods of seasoning of timber:

1. Natural Seasoning
2. Artificial Seasoning

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Seasoning
Natural Seasoning:

Seasoning is carry out by natural element is called natural seasoning.

• Air Seasoning

• Water Seasoning

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Seasoning
Air Seasoning

• Most common process of seasoning.

• In this process, Exposing the wood to open air for

seasoning.

• At first, platform is required that is built on the

ground at ( normally ) 30 cm height above the
ground.

• Secondly, Arrangement of wood in a layers.

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Seasoning
Advantage of air Seasoning:
• It is highly economics.
• It is applicable to thicker timber parts as well as thin section.
• Good quality of seasoned wood.
• Generally, bring down moisture content 16-17 % level

Disadvantage of air Seasoning:

• Not less then 16% bring out moisture.

• Very slow process, take 3 to 4 year to be seasoning timber
• If timber not stacked properly so insect and fungi can attack on timber

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Seasoning
Water Seasoning : (2-4 week)

• Freshly cut trees are placed in running water, the

sap from the cells can be easily washed out.

• In place of sap, the cells get filled with ordinary

water.

• When such logs are taken out, and wood from them
placed for air seasoning.

• It takes comparatively less time to become dry.

• Placing the logs in water also saves them from

unequal shrinkage.

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Seasoning
Advantage of water Seasoning:
• Large amount is convenient in this process.
• Well Seasoned timber is found.
• Fast then air seasoning

Disadvantage of water Seasoning:

• It is slow process, it takes 6 month to be seasoning timber.

• Timber have tendency to absorb water.

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Seasoning
Artificial Seasoning:

Artificial seasoning is the process by which lumber is dried using man-made

devices such as a kiln.

• Seasoning by Boiling
• Chemical Seasoning
• Seasoning by Kiln
• Electrical Seasoning

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Seasoning
Seasoning by Boiling:

• This is also a quick method of removing sap from

within the cells.

• The timber is immersed in water and boiling for

4- 5 hours.

• The sap is washed out by this process.

• On placing in the air, such boiled timber dries

quickly.

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Seasoning
Advantage of Seasoning by Boiling:

• It takes short amount of time. Generally 3-4 hr good enough.

• Tendency of wood to reduce shrink and warp.

Disadvantage of Seasoning of Boiling:

• The cost is high.

• Reduce the elasticity and durability

• It is serviceable basically for small quantity of wood. Not suitable for large scale.

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Seasoning
Chemical Seasoning.

• In this process timber is immersed in a

solution of Soluble salt (ammonium
Carbonate or urea).

• Takeout and dry ordinary way.

• In this process inner surface of timber

dries in advance of external one.

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Seasoning
Advantage of Seasoning by chemical:

• It increases the strength of the timber.

• It is less time consuming.
• Timber don’t have cracks on outer surface due to internal surface dry first.

Disadvantage of Seasoning of chemical:

• Chemical reagents can sometime reduce strength.

• It can cause a problem in gluing of finishing while using.

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Seasoning
Seasoning by kiln: (Hot Air or steam)

• This is the modern method of seasoning any type of timber in a short time.
• It involves drying the timber in a specially designed kiln where there is perfect
control over temperature, humidity and air circulation.
• it is possible to reduce the moisture content to as low level as 6 percent.

Two type of Methods

1. Compartmental Seasoning
2. Progressive Kiln Seasoning

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Seasoning
Seasoning by compartmental kilns: ( single
enclose container)
• Kiln is a like large oven.
• Timber is stacked on a trolley and wheeled in
• Steam is pumped in to heat the wood and
maintain moisture levels.
• The steam heats the timber but does not dry
it out.
• Once heated, the relative humidity of the
timber is reduced but the heat maintained.
• Fan keep air Circulation.
• Evaporate until required moisture contain is
reached.
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Seasoning
Seasoning by Progressive kilns:
• A progressive kiln has the stack on trolley
that progressively travel through a
sequence of chambers.

• Each chamber has varying atmospheres

that change the moisture contain of the
timber stack as it travels through.

• Advantage of this system has a

continuous flow of seasoned timber
coming off line.

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Seasoning
Seasoning by Electrical:

• Dry wood is a non- conductor of

electricity.
• But when a high alternating current is
passed through a piece of green timber,
heat generated is enough to dry out the
moisture of the cells which do conduct
some electricity.
• In this way, the timber pieces are dried
quickly.

• The technique involves costly equipment,

and even the consumption of electricity is
so high that the process is uneconomical.
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Preservation of Timber
Preservation of Timber means protecting timber from fungi and insects attack so that
its life is increased.

Methods of Preservation:
Tar:
• Hot coal tar is applied to timber with brush.
• Protect attack fungi and insects.
• It is very cheap.
Paint:
• Two or three coat of oil paint are applied on the surface of timber.
• It protect from moisture.

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Preservation of Timber
Chemical salt:
• These are the preservatives made by dissolving salt in water.
• The salt use are copper sulphate, magnesium chloride, zinc
chloride etc.

Creosolt Oil:
• It is obtained by distillation of coal tar.
• When seasoned timber is kept in an air tight chamber and air is
exhausted. Then oil is pumped into the chamber at a pressure
0.8-1 N/mm2 and temp. 50’c .After 1 to 2 hr. and timber is
taken out from chamber.

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Preservation of Timber
ASCO:
• This preservative is developed by the Forest Research Institute, Dehradun.
• It consist of
Hydrated arsenic Copper Potassium
pentoxide (As2O5.2H2O) Sulphata(CuSO4.5H2O) dichromate(K2Cr2O7)
1 part by weight 3 part of weight 4 part of weight

• This preservative is available in Power Form.

• By Mixing 6 part of this power with 100 part of water , the solution is prepared.
• Sprayed over the surface of timber.
• Prevents attack from Termites( social insect)

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Bamboo
• Bamboo is a eco-friendly construction material,.

• With a wide variety of flooring, furniture and other

items being manufactured with the strong, fast-
growing grass.

• Bamboo is one of the fastest growing plants on earth

(growth rate 3-10 cm per day depends on local soil
and climate ).

• Bamboo is a endogenous tree which are too

flexibility, light and tough.

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Bamboo
Bamboo is useful for various applications at different ages:

< 30 days = good for eating.

6-9 months = for making baskets.

2-3 years = for bamboo boards or laminations

3-6 years = for construction.

> 6 years = bamboo gradually loses strength up to 12 years old

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Bamboo
Uses of Bamboo
1. Bamboo Truss: used for roof truss structure as purlins, rafter,
battens.
2. Bamboo Walling/ Ceiling: bamboo is a light weight and it is
more advantage in earthquake prone areas as its chances of
falling are very less and if failing it can be re-erected easily
with less human and property loss.

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Bamboo
Uses of Bamboo
3. Bamboo Door/window: Bamboo mat shutters fixed to bamboo
frame.
4. Bamboo Flooring: used as flooring materials due to its better
wear and tear resistance.
5. Scaffolding: Bamboo poles have been used as Scaffolding in
High rise structures due to their strength.

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Bamboo
Uses of Bamboo
6. Erosion Control: Bamboo can be used as a bio- engineering
plant for erosion Control.
7. Paper: Bamboo fibre may be used to make paper
8. Structural Reinforcement: Many researches have been done
regarding the use of bamboo as reinforcement in concrete
structures.

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Bamboo
Advantage of Bamboo:
• Economic
• Cost effective construction
• No need for high skilled labour.
• Light weight
• Workability
• Too flexibility and tough
• Sound absorption
• Aesthetic view
• Save wood because fast growth product more.

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Wood based products: veneer, plywood, imperg

timber, compreg timber, boards
Veneer
• Veener are thin sheets or slices of wood of superior quality, having thickness varying
from 0.4 mm to 6 mm or more.
• These are obtained with the aid of circular rotary saw or rotary peeling machine and
are peeled off the log by a sharp knife in a long continuous sheet by rotating the log
on its longitudinal axis.
• The veener is too thin to be used as a separate, but is glued or cemented to other
veeners.
• The veeners are used in the construction of aircraft, and manufacture of plywood,
laminated board, batten boards.

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Plywood:
• Ply wood is made by cementing together several layers of wood which may be thin veneers
or thicker boards.
• Plywood is made of three or more thin layers of wood bonded together with an adhesive.
• Each layer of wood, or ply, is usually oriented with its grain running at right angles to the
adjacent layer in order to reduce the shrinkage and improve the strength of the finished
piece.
• Most plywood is pressed into large, flat sheets used in building construction. Other
plywood pieces may be formed into simple or compound curves for use in furniture, boats,
and aircraft.
Sizes: Plywood sheets range in thickness from. 06 in (1.6 mm) to 3.0 in (76 mm).
Advantage:
1. Better appearance and available in large size.
2. Easily workable and capable of being shaped to numerous designs.
3. Uniform tensile strength in all directions.
4. Light in weight and greater strength.
5. Highly resistant to cracking, warping
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Board:
Lamin Board:
• Lamin board is a board having a core of strips, each not exceeding 7 mm in thickness
glued together face to face to form a slab which is glued between two or more veeners.
• The lamin board is light, strong and do not split or crack easily.
Uses: Used in Walls, ceilings, partitions and packing cases.
Block Board:
• A block board is constructed in the same way as lamin board.
• In this the core consists of smaller timber block upto 25 mm in width.
• These blocks are cemented edge to edge and
on each face piles upto 3 mm thickness are glued.
Uses: Construction of railways carriages, bus bodies,
marine and river craft, furniture making, partitions,
paneling, prefabricated houses
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Board:
Batten Board:
A batten board is a board having a core made up of strips of wood usually 80 mm wide,
each laid separately or glued and glued between two or more outer veeners.
Uses:boards are used for door panels, table tops.

Fiber Boards:

• They are also known as pressed or reconstruction wood.

• They are available in various sizes.
• They are made from a mass of felled wood by treated with steam and pressure.
Used: internal finishing, partitions wall, table tops, insulation materials heat and sound.
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Impregnation timber :
Impreg Timber:
• Timber partly/ Fully Covered with resins.
• Used of resins Phenol formaldehyde
• Veneers immersed in resins and heated at 150 to 160 “c.
• Trade name Sunmica, sungloss.
• Not Affected by moisture, weather acid etc.
• Low expansion and contraction
• Glazing appearance.
Compreg Timber:
• Same as impreg timber, but curved under pressure
• Heat and Pressure
• More Strength and Durability- good quality.
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