UNIT - I

INTRODUCTION TO WOOD WORK

1.​Wood as a forest product had been in use by mankind for building and
household works right from the begin
2.​Wood is an important and preferred material for several applications in
buildings such as doors, windows and paneling of walls, roofs and floors for
decoration and insulation against heat, cold and sound.
3.​Quality furniture, cabinet works and showcases are still made from wood
only.
4.​ In terms of strength to weight ratio, wood is generally stronger and
lighter than many other alternative engineering materials.
5.​Besides being cheaper and readily available, wood is handled easily and
converted into different usable forms with the help of simple tools and
cheaper labour.
6.​When it is treated properly; the life of wood can be increased
considerably.
7.​There are some treatments that make the wood fire resistant.
Timber:
1.​Timber is the general name given to that wood which is good and suitable
for engineering and building purposes.
2.​Good timber is obtained from full grown or matured exogenous trees (those
having annular rings) .
3.​It has good resistance against shock and shear loadings.
4.​Timber is one such unique material, which possesses a combination of several
qualities like good strength and durability, lightweight, sound proof, heat
proof and economical.
5.​It suitable for both load bearing and non-load bearing structures.
6.​ Results in cheaper and faster construction on account of low material cost
and ease ppin cutting or processing the wood using simpler tools and
machines and cheaper labour.
7.​It has attractive grains and is capable of taking polish very well. Because of
this feature, timber suits well for making doors, windows, furniture ,
cabinets and for making many other household articles.
8.​Being heat-proof and sound- proof, timber is used for panelling of walls,
floors, and roofs in cinema halls, auditoriums and other prestigious buildings.
It gives good houses, which are comfortable both in winter and summer
seasons.
9.​Timber, when treated properly, is fire resistant and has a very long life.
10.​ It has a good resale value as well.
Selection of a Timber
The selection of good timber is based on several factors, sometimes it
becomes desirable to consider only one or two important factors in view of
specific use of the timber in service. In general, the main factors that
influence the selection of timber includes:
[Link]
2. Lightness,
3. Elasticity,
4. Hardness,
5. Ease of working,
6. Types of grain and texture,
7. Resistance to impact,Fire and Shock loading.
8. Ability to take polish.
STRUCTURE OF TIMBER
The structure of a timber can be seen from the cross section of a tree as
shown:

Pith:
1.​It is the innermost part of a tree having soft tissues.
2.​It is also known as Medulla.
3.​When the tree becomes old, the pith will be dark and fibrous.
Heart Wood:
1.​Inner part of the log of a tree surrounding the pith is called Heart wood
2.​This is the dead part of wood, which is strong and dark in colour.
3.​This portion consists of several annual rings.
4.​It imparts rigidity and hence provides strength and durability to the timber
for various engineering uses.
5.​It doesn't take part in the growth of a tree.
Sap Wood:
1.​This layer is present next to heart wood, and is also known as alburnum.
2.​Outer part of the log of a tree surrounding heart wood & upto the bark
3.​It contains living cells called Sapwood.
4.​It contains sap.
5.​The annual rings of sap wood are light in colour and are less sharply divided.
6.​It takes part in the growth of a tree.
Cambium Layer:
1.​It is the thin layer of sap between the sapwood and the inner bark of a
tree.
2.​ It indicates sap which is yet to be converted into sap wood.
3.​If the bark is removed and the cambium layer is exposed to the
atmosphere, the activeness of cells comes to an end and the tree dies.
Inner Bark or Bast:
1.​It is ourthe inner skin surrounding the cambium layer.
2.​This skin feed & covers the Cambium Layer.
3.​ It provides protection to the cambium layer from any injury.
Outer bark:
1.​It is the covering, outside the log of a tree which consists of wood fibres.
2.​ It is also known as cortex.
Annual ring:
1.​The concentric innumerable rings in the log of a timber, indicating its growth
are called annual rings.
Medullary Rays:
1.​Horizontal thin fibrous tissues which extend radially from the pith towards
the cambium layer are called Medullary rays.
2.​They hold annular rings of heart wood and sap wood together.
Common Types of Indian Timber
1. Teak is strong, durable, takes very smooth polish and is used for elegant
and costly works of furniture and building components like doors and
windows. It is stronger than shisham and can be used for doors and windows
without warping.
2. Shisham is dark brown in colour and has well marked coarse grains. It is
strong and used for furniture, building components like doors and windows,
carriages and bridges.
3. Sal is hard, close grained, heavy and durable. It is used for Railway
sleepers, bridges, frames for doors and windows in buildings and ship
construction.
4. Babool is close grained, tough and pale-red coloured wood. It is used for
tool handles and building works.
5. Chir is soft wood and used for interior works in houses.
6. Deodar is strong, durable and is used for railway sleepers and house
building.
7. Kail is a close grained, moderately hard and durable wood. It is used
where deodar is used.
8. Mango is coarse and open grained wood and is used as a cheaper
alternative for doors and furniture.
9. Mulberry is strong, tough and elastic wood. It is used for making tennis
and badminton rackets, hockey sticks, bats and other sports goods.
10. Tun is light and close grained wood and takes good polish. It is used for
furniture.
11. Mahogony has straight grains and red brown colour and is very durable
when dry. It has some oil which prevents the attack of insects. It is used
for cabinet work, fine furniture and ship building.
12. Walnut is light coloured, fine grained and moderately hard and takes
very good polish. It is used for decoration works, cabinet work, fine
furniture.
13. Bamboo is used for scaffolding and roofing works in buildings.
Common foreign woods used in India are: Ash, Burma teak, Beech, Oak and
Pine
Seasoning of Wood
In the process of wood seasoning, unwanted or extra moisture contained in the
wood is taken away to get rid off the sap, the presence of which results in
shrinkage, splitting or warping of the wood. Decaying may also occur. Most
seasoned woods have moisture contents q reduced to about 12%
Common Methods of Wood Seasoning: Common methods of wood seasoning
are:
1. Natural or Air seasoning
2. Artificial or kiln seasoning
3. Other methods of seasoning.
[Link] or air seasoning Air seasoning involves drying the wood naturally by
exposing it to air. It’s cost-effective but slower compared to kiln seasoning.
Step 1: Selection of Timber
●​ Choose freshly cut logs.
●​ Cut logs into desired sizes (planks, beams, etc.).
●​ Bark is usually removed to speed up drying and reduce insect attack.
Step 2: Site Selection
●​ Select a well-ventilated, dry, shaded area.
●​ The site should have good drainage to prevent water logging.
Step 3: Foundation Preparation
Build a platform 30–45 cm (1.0–1.5 feet) above the ground using bricks or
stones to prevent ground moisture absorption.
Step 4: Stacking the Timber
●​ Stack timber horizontally with stickers (small wooden battens) placed
between each layer.
●​ Leave some space between stacks to ensure cross-ventilation.
Step 5: Protection
●​ Cover the top of the stack with a waterproof roof to protect from rain and
direct sunlight.
●​ Keep sides open to allow airflow.
Step 6: Drying Period
●​ It takes much longer time, 1-5 years whereas harder and thicker woods
take a longer time.
●​ Moisture content typically reduces upto 12%.
2. Kiln Seasoning (Artificial Seasoning)
Kiln seasoning is a controlled, faster method using a chamber (kiln) with
controlled temperature, humidity, and air circulation.
Step 1: Preparation
●​ Timber is cut to desired size and pre-checked for any defects.
 ●​ Initial moisture content is measured using a moisture meter.
Step 2: Loading the Kiln
●​ Timber is stacked with stickers (just like air seasoning) inside the kiln
chamber.
●​ Stacks must allow airflow around each piece.
Step 3: Setting Parameters
The kiln is programmed with the appropriate temperature, relative humidity,
and air circulation depending on:
●​ Wood species
●​ Thickness
●​ Initial and target moisture content
Step 4: Drying Process
●​ Temperature is gradually increased (typically between 40–100°C).
●​ Humidity is reduced over time to avoid surface cracking.
●​ Air is circulated with fans to ensure even drying.
Step 5: Monitoring
●​ Moisture content is regularly checked either manually or with sensors).
●​ Adjustments are made according to conditions to optimize drying.
Step 6: Conditioning
Humidity is slightly increased to equalize moisture throughout the wood and
reduce stresses.
Step 7: Unloading and Storage
●​ Once the target moisture content (usually upto 12%) is reached, the wood is
removed.
●​ Stored in a dry area to avoid re-absorption of moisture.
●​ The drying period ranges from a few days to a few weeks.

[Link] methods of seasoning The other methods of seasoning are those,

which are less common in practic dee. These include water seasoning, boiling,
chemical or salt seasoning and electrical seasoning.
Water Seasoning involves immersing timber in water as soon as it is cut. It is
kept in that position for about two weeks. After taking the timber out of water,
it is dried in the open air. The method is suitable for that wood which is very
green and has a lot of sap. Water seasoned wood has less chance of attack by
worms or decay by rot. It also becomes less liable to warp and crack. The total
time required for water seasoning of timber is about 3 to 4 months.
Boiling
1.​ It involves keeping the timber in boiling water or steam for about four hours.
2.​ The wood is then dried very slowly in the air.
3.​ The method increases the strength and elasticity of the wood.
4.​ The total time required for boiling seasoning of timber is about 2-3 weeks.

Chemical or Salt Seasoning

1.​ In case of chemical seasoning, timber is stored in suitable salt solution for
some time.
2.​ The salt solution has the tendency to absorb water from the timber. So, the
moisture content is removed and then timber is allowed to dry in the open..
3.​ Salt treatment helps in reducing external splitting of the wood but it affects
the strength of the timber.
4.​ The total time required for chemical or salt seasoning of timber is 2-4 weeks.
Electrical Seasoning
1.​ It uses a high-frequency current that produces heat to dry out the timber.
2.​ It is a very fast method of seasoning.
3.​ The drying period is very short, typically 4-5 days.
4.​ The disadvantage is that it may cause the splitting of timber from the ends.
5.​ Moreover, heating of cell walls causes considerable weakness in them.
6.​ The method is very costly and hence seldom used.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
In general, the defects in timber are mainly due to:
I. Defects in timber due to Natural Forces
1. Wind Cracks in Timber
If the wood is exposed continuously to the high-speed winds, the outer surface
shrinks and forms cracks externally, which are called wind cracks.

2. Shakes in Timber
Shakes are nothing but cracks which separate the wood fibers partly or
completely. Different shakes are formed in different conditions as follows:
Cup shakes are formed due to the non-uniform growth of a tree or excessive
bending by cyclones or winds. In this case, the shakes develop between annual
rings and separate them partly.
Ring shakes are similar to cup shakes, but they completely separate the annual
rings.
Heart shakes, the other type of shakes which develop in maturity approaching
trees whose inner part is under shrinkage. The shake spread from pith to
sapwood following the directions of medullary rays.
Star shakes are formed due to extreme heat They develop wider cracks on the
outside of timber from bark to the sapwood.
Frost shake begins on the outside where moisture from rain or fog in winter has
penetrated, and freezes, causing damage to the wood on the inside.
.

3. Twisted Fibers in Timbers

When the tree in its younger age is exposed to high-speed winds, the fibers of
wood get twisted. This type of wood is not suitable for sawing. So, this can be
used for making poles, posts, etc.

4. Upsets
Upsets, a defect of timber in which the fibers of the wood are crushed and
compressed by fast blowing winds or inappropriate chopping of trees.

5. Rind Galls
A rind gall is a defect in timber that appears as a swelling or curved growth on a
tree where a branch was removed. It occurs when a tree is wounded during
branch removal, and the layers of sapwood that regrow don't properly join with
the old rot. This leaves cavities that can lead to decay

6. Burls
Burls are uneven projections on the body of the tree during its growth. These
are mainly due to the effect of shocks and injuries received by the tree during
its young age.

7. Water Stain
When the wood is in contact with water for some time, the water will damage
the color of the wood and form a stain on its surface. This defect is called a
water stain.
8. Chemical Stain
Chemical stain is formed on the wood by the action of any external chemical
agents like reaction by the gases present in the atmosphere etc. The stain area
gets discolored in this defect.
9. Dead Wood
The wood obtained from the cutting of the dead tree is light in weight and is
actually defected. It is reddish in color and its strength is very less.

10. Knots in Timber

The central part or stem of a tree is majorly used in the conversion of timber.
Branches from the stem are removed, and the whole rounded stem is taken. But
the base of branches forms a mark on the stem, which results in dark-colored
stains on the surface after conversion. These dark-colored rings are known as
knots.
11. Timber Foxiness
When the timber is stored without proper ventilation, the trees growing near
the banks of water bodies and over matured trees may exhibit this type of
defect. Foxiness is generally indicated by red or yellow spots.

12. Druxiness
Druxiness is a defect of timber in which the top surface of timber indicates
white spots. These spots will give access to fungi.

13. Callus
The wound of the tree is covered by soft skin, which is called a callus.

II. Defects in timber due to Fungi

1. Dry Rot in Timber
●​ Dry rot is caused by a certain type of fungi that eats wood for their living.
●​ It occurs when wood becomes too wet with a moisture content of over 20%
and the wood-destroying fungus attacks the timber.
●​ Dry rot is the most serious form of fungal decay.

2. Wet Rot in Timber

●​ Wet rot is caused by fungi that decompose the timber and convert it into a
grayish-brown powder form.
●​ Wet rot causes fungi growth mainly when there are alternate dry and wet
conditions of timber.

3. Brown Rot in Timber

The cellulose compounds of the wood are consumed by certain types of fungi,
which then makes the wood brownish, and this defect is called brown rot.

4. White Rot in Timber

Some types of fungi attack lignin of timber and leave cellulose compounds; hence
the wood will turn into white color, which is called white rot.

5. Blue Stain in Timber

Blue stain is a defect caused by some kind of fungi, which makes the timber
bluish. Damage occurs in standing forests or in timber before sawing or by wood
being stored for too long between sawing and drying

6. Heart Rot in Timber

Heart rot is generated in the trees when fungi attack the heartwood through its
newly formed branch. This type of fungi makes the tree hollow by consuming
heartwood. This defect is known as heart rot. The fungi enter the tree through
wounds in the bark.

III. Defects in Timber During Seasoning

L1. Bow
When the converted timber is stored for a longer time, some timber planks may
have a curve along its length, which is known as Bow.

2. Cup
If the timber planks curve along its width, then it is called Cupping of timber.

3. Check
Check is the formation of a crack in the wood, which will separate the wood
fibers. They form due to over seasoning of timber.

4. Split
Split forms when a check extends from one end to the other end, which will split
the wood into a number of pieces.

5. Twist
Twist forms when the timber piece is distorted spirally along its length.

6. Honeycombing
Honeycombing is a defect in timber that occurs when internal stresses cause
radial and circular cracks to form in the wood's interior, creating a
honeycomb-like texture. It's a serious dtherying defect and usually can't be
seen on surface of the wood.

7. Case Hardening
Casehardening is nothing but the top surface of wood, which dries rapidly during
seasoning, but the inner part didn’t. Then this defect is called case hardening.

8. Collapse
During drying, some parts of the wood may dry rapidly while some may not.
Because of this, improper drying shrinkage of wood occurs, which results in the
defect called collapse.

9. Radial Shakes
Radial shakes develop when there is a delay in sawing after felling of a tree and
exposed to the sun for seasoning. In this case, the cracks run radially from bark
to the pith through annual rings. These are similar to star shakes. But they are
fine, irregular and numerous.

IV. Defects in timber due to Insects

1. Termites in Timber
Termites also known as white ants which form a colony inside the timber and eat
the core part of the timber rapidly. They do not disturb the outer layer of
timber, so one cannot identify their presence. The trees in tropical and
sub-tropical regions are mostly affected by these termites.
However, some trees like teak, Sal, etc. cannot be attacked by termites because
of the presence of termite preventing chemicals in their cellulose part.

2. Beetles in Timber
Beetles are a type of insects that destroy the sapwood of the tree and make a
tunnel-like hole from the bark. Usually , the diameter of the hole is around 2 mm.
They convert sapwood into powder form, and larvae of these beetles use these
holes. Almost all hardwood trees can be prone to damage by these beetles.

3. Marine Borers in Timber

Marine borers are found near coastal areas. They do not consume wood, but they
make large holes of diameter up to 25mm in the timber to live inside it. The wood

attacked by marine borers is of less strength and discolored. Lo

Defects in Timber due to Conversion
1. Diagonal Grain Defect in Timber
During the conversion of timber, different cutting saws are used. The cutting
should be done properly. If there is any improper cutting them diagonal grains
will appear.

2. Torn Grain
In the conversion, many tools are used. If any of the tools or any other heavy
things are dropped accidentally on the finished surface of timber it will cause
small depression, which is called torn grain.

3. Chip Mark
When the timber is cut through the planning machine, the parts of the machine
may form chip marks on it.

4. Wane defect
The edge part of the timber log contains a rounded edge on one side because of
its original rounded surface. This rounded edge is called wane.
Measuring tools
The carpentry measuring tools are as follows
1. Steel rule : Steel rule is made from steel. It is a measuring tool used to
measure linear measurements of any objects. On one of the flat faces,
graduations are marked in inches and in centimeters and are used for
measurement with an accuracy of 0.5mm.

2. Four fold rule : It is a wooden scale and consists of four pieces each 15cm
long and hinged together by means of pins. It is graduated on both sides in
mm/cm and is used for measurement with an accuracy of 1.0mm

3. Flexible Tape : It is used for measuring long dimensions, curved and angular
surfaces up to an accuracy of 1.0mm.

[Link] Square : Try square is used for marking and testing angles of 900 . It
consists of a steel blade, riveted into a hard wood stock at right angle.

[Link] Square : The bevel square is similar to try square but has a blade that
may move to any angle from 00 to 1800.
6. Mitre Square : It is used to measure an angle of 450. They are made of all
metal with a nickel-plated finish with a steel blade, the blade varies from 200mm
to 300mm long.

Marking tools
1. .Marking Knife : A marking knife is a woodworking tool that creates precise,
thin lines to guide cuts, joints, and other joinery operations. The thin, permanent
line cut by the marking knife provides a more accurate reference than a pencil,
ensuring cleaner and more precise woodworking.

2. Marking Gauge : It has one marking point. It gives an accurate cut line
parallel to a true edge, usually with the grain.
3. Mortise Gauge : It has two marking points-one fixed near to the end of the
stem and the other attached to a brass sliding bar. These two teeth cut two

parallel lines ca lled mortise lines.

Holding tools
1. Bench vice: It is a common work holding device. It consists of one fixed jaw and one
movable jaw. Its one jaw is fixed to the side of the table while the other is movable by means
of a screw and a handle. It is made of iron and steel.

2. Bar cramp/sash cramp: The sash cramp or bar cramp is made up of a steel bar of
rectangular section, with malleable iron fittings and a steel screw. This is used for holding
wide work such as frames or [Link] are generally used in pairs in gluing up operations at
the final assembly.

3. G-clamp: G-clamp is made up of malleable iron with threads of high quality steel It can be
used for clamping small work when gluing up. It is also called as C - Clamp

STRIKING TOOLS
[Link] peen hammer : Used for general striking purposes.

2. Cross peen hammer : Used for carpentry work usually. The cross-peen side is used for
setting nails, and the rounded face is used for finishing the job
3. Mallet : The mallet is made up of wood and is used to give light blows to the cutting tools
having wooden handles such as chisels.

4. Claw Hammer : The claw hammer is used for pulling out any nails accidently bent while
driving. These hammers are made in numbers sizes from 1 to 4 weighing 375, 450, 550 and
675gms.

CUTTING TOOLS
[Link] saw or cross saw : Hand saws are used to cut across the grain in thick wood.
They are 600 to 650 mm long with 8 to 10 teeth. per 25mm

2. Rip saw : Rip saw are used for cutting along the grain in thick wood. The blade is
made of high grade tool steel. It is fitted in a wooden handle made of hard wood by
means of rivets or screws. Rip saws are about 700 mm long with 3 to 5 points or teeth
per 25 mm.

3. Tenon saws: Tenon saws are named for their use in cutting tenons, which are pieces
of wood that are inserted into other pieces of wood to create a joint. Its blades are
from 250mm to 400mm long and the shapes are in the form of an equilateral triangle
and there are 10-14 teeth per 25 mm

4. Panel saw : Panel saws are woodworking machines used to cut large sheets of
materials into smaller pieces. It is about 500mm long with 10 to 12 teeth per 25mm. It
can be either vertical or horizontal. Vertical panel saws are used in workshops with
limited space.
[Link] saw : It is used where the greatest accuracy is needed. The number of
teeth may be from 12 to 28 per 25mm, while the length may vary from 200 to 350mm.

6. Compass saw : The compass saw is used for sawing small curves in confined spaces
and has a narrow tapering blade about 250 to 400mm long fixed to an open type
wooden handle.

7. Chisel Chisels are mainly hand-held tools designed with an edge sharpened to cut
through materials including: wood, metals and stone. They are usually made up of the
following four different parts as a general rule.
Head. This is the part that is hit by the striking tool, whether it be a hammer or a
mallet. It is at the far end of the chisel.
Handle, which allows the sculptor to hold the chisel comfortably and direct the impact
when it is struck.
Wedge, which is where you will find the cutting part (the flat areas of the chisel).
Cutting edge, which is the part that is responsible for delivering the impact to the
piece you are working on.
[Link] : It is a cutting tool used for removing the bark of trees and splitting the wood
along the grains and also used for making the wood surface roughly plane..
6. Adzes are used for shaping, carving, and smoothing wood.
BORING TOOLS
[Link] and Gimlet : Bradawl and gimlet are hand operated tools and are used to
bore small holes, such as for starting as screws or large nails.
2. Ratchet Brace : The ratchet brace is most useful for turning bits and drills of all
kinds.
3. Wheel Brace : The wheel brace is used to hold round and parallel shaped drills.
This tool is invaluable for cutting small holes, accurately and quickly.
4. Auger : It is used for making holes up to 25 mm.
5. Shellbit : Used for boring rough holes upto 12 mm diameter.
6. Auger bit : (Twist bit) It is used for making long, c1 qvolean and accurate holes j
35mm diameter.
7. Fostner bit : It is used for sinking a clean hole partly t tuuhrough the wood.
8. Centre bit : It is used for making accurate, clean and shallow y ac to iross the : It
is used for countersinking previously drilled holes to fit the heads of screws in wooden
pieces.
10. Drill bit : For drilling holes by using wheeled brace or drilling machines.
 PLYWOOD AND ITS ADVANTAGES:
Plywood is the most commonly used item in construction. This is because of its many
useful properties. Plywood is made in a factory with precise dimensions and is made
from three or four sheets of wood that are glued together with the grains of
adjacent layers arranged at right angles or at a wide angle.. Plywood is very thin, light
in weight, and very durable.
Plywood offers the following benefits:
1.​ Increased stability: Plywood offers all the inherent advantages of the parent wood
plus enhanced properties in its laminated structure.
2.​High impact resistance: Being a wood based material, plywood has the ability to
accommodate the occasional short-term overload; up to twice the design load. This is
useful where seismic activity or cyclonic winds can occur. This property is also
effective when used as construction flooring or as concrete formwork. Plywood's
laminated structure distributes loads from impact over a larger area on the opposite
face, which effectively reduces the tensile stress.
3.​Surface dimensional stability:The cross laminated construction of plywood ensures
that plywood sheets remain relatively stable under changes of temperature and
moisture. This is especially important in flooring and formwork construction where
moisture exposure is very likely.
4.​High strength to weight ratio: With high strength and stiffness to weight ratios,
plywood is very cost effective to use in structural applications such as flooring, shear
walls and webbed beams.
5.​Panel shear: The panel shear of plywood is nearly double that of solid timber due its
cross laminated structure. This makes plywood a highly effective material to use in
gussets for portal frames, webs of fabricated beams and as bracing panels.
6.​ Chemical resistance: Plywood does not corrode and can be used in chemical works and
cooling towers as a cost-effective, durable material when preservative treated.