Computer programming

Computer programming or coding is the composition of sequences of instructions, called

programs, that computers can follow to perform tasks.[1][2] It involves designing and
implementing algorithms, step-by-step specifications of procedures, by writing code in one or
more programming languages. Programmers typically use high-level programming languages
that are more easily intelligible to humans than machine code, which is directly executed by
the central processing unit. Proficient programming usually requires expertise in several
different subjects, including knowledge of the application domain, details of programming
languages and generic code libraries, specialized algorithms, and formal logic.

Auxiliary tasks accompanying and related to programming include analyzing requirements,

testing, debugging (investigating and fixing problems), implementation of build systems, and
management of derived artifacts, such as programs' machine code. While these are
sometimes considered programming, often the term software development is used for this
larger overall process – with the terms programming, implementation, and coding reserved
for the writing and editing of code per se. Sometimes software development is known as
software engineering, especially when it employs formal methods or follows an engineering
design process.
History

Ada Lovelace, whose notes were added

to the end of Luigi Menabrea's paper
included the first algorithm designed for
processing by Charles Babbage's
Analytical Engine. She is often
recognized as history's first computer
programmer.

Programmable devices have existed for centuries. As early as the 9th century, a
programmable music sequencer was invented by the Persian Banu Musa brothers, who
described an automated mechanical flute player in the Book of Ingenious Devices.[3][4] In
1206, the Arab engineer Al-Jazari invented a programmable drum machine where a musical
mechanical automaton could be made to play different rhythms and drum patterns, via
pegs and cams.[5][6] In 1801, the Jacquard loom could produce entirely different weaves by
changing the "program" – a series of pasteboard cards with holes punched in them.

Code-breaking algorithms have also existed for centuries. In the 9th century, the Arab
mathematician Al-Kindi described a cryptographic algorithm for deciphering encrypted code,
in A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages. He gave the first description of
cryptanalysis by frequency analysis, the earliest code-breaking algorithm.[7]

The first computer program is generally dated to 1843 when mathematician Ada Lovelace
published an algorithm to calculate a sequence of Bernoulli numbers, intended to be carried
out by Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine.[8] The algorithm, which was conveyed through
notes on a translation of Luigi Federico Menabrea's paper on the analytical engine was
mainly conceived by Lovelace as can be discerned through her correspondence with Babbage.
However, Charles Babbage himself had written a program for the AE in 1837.[9][10] Lovelace
was also the first to see a broader application for the analytical engine beyond
mathematical calculations.

Data and instructions were once stored

on external punched cards, which were
kept in order and arranged in program
decks.

In the 1880s, Herman Hollerith invented the concept of storing data in machine-readable
form.[11] Later a control panel (plug board) added to his 1906 Type I Tabulator allowed
it to be programmed for different jobs, and by the late 1940s, unit record equipment such
as the IBM 602 and IBM 604, were programmed by control panels in a similar way, as
were the first electronic computers. However, with the concept of the stored-program
computer introduced in 1949, both programs and data were stored and manipulated in the
same way in computer memory.[12]

Machine language

Machine code was the language of early programs, written in the instruction set of the
particular machine, often in binary notation. Assembly languages were soon developed that
let the programmer specify instructions in a text format (e.g., ADD X, TOTAL), with
abbreviations for each operation code and meaningful names for specifying addresses.
However, because an assembly language is little more than a different notation for a
machine language, two machines with different instruction sets also have different assembly
languages.

Wired control panel for an IBM 402

Accounting Machine. Wires connect pulse
streams from the card reader to
counters and other internal logic and
ultimately to the printer.

Compiler languages

High-level languages made the process of developing a program simpler and more
understandable, and less bound to the underlying hardware. The first compiler related tool,
the A-0 System, was developed in 1952[13] by Grace Hopper, who also coined the term
'compiler'.[14][15] FORTRAN, the first widely used high-level language to have a functional
implementation, came out in 1957,[16] and many other languages were soon developed—in
particular, COBOL aimed at commercial data processing, and Lisp for computer research.

These compiled languages allow the programmer to write programs in terms that are
syntactically richer, and more capable of abstracting the code, making it easy to target
varying machine instruction sets via compilation declarations and heuristics. Compilers
harnessed the power of computers to make programming easier[16] by allowing programmers
to specify calculations by entering a formula using infix notation.

Source code entry

Programs were mostly entered using punched cards or paper tape. By the late 1960s, data
storage devices and computer terminals became inexpensive enough that programs could be
created by typing directly into the computers. Text editors were also developed that
allowed changes and corrections to be made much more easily than with punched cards.
Modern programming

Quality requirements

Whatever the approach to development may be, the final program must satisfy some
fundamental properties. The following properties are among the most important:[17] [18]

Reliability: how often the results of a program are correct. This depends on conceptual
correctness of algorithms and minimization of programming mistakes, such as mistakes in
resource management (e.g., buffer overflows and race conditions) and logic errors (such
as division by zero or off-by-one errors).

Robustness: how well a program anticipates problems due to errors (not bugs). This
includes situations such as incorrect, inappropriate or corrupt data, unavailability of
needed resources such as memory, operating system services, and network connections,
user error, and unexpected power outages.

Usability: the ergonomics of a program: the ease with which a person can use the
program for its intended purpose or in some cases even unanticipated purposes. Such
issues can make or break its success even regardless of other issues. This involves a wide
range of textual, graphical, and sometimes hardware elements that improve the clarity,
intuitiveness, cohesiveness, and completeness of a program's user interface.

Portability: the range of computer hardware and operating system platforms on which the
source code of a program can be compiled/interpreted and run. This depends on
differences in the programming facilities provided by the different platforms, including
hardware and operating system resources, expected behavior of the hardware and
operating system, and availability of platform-specific compilers (and sometimes libraries)
for the language of the source code.

Maintainability: the ease with which a program can be modified by its present or future
developers in order to make improvements or to customize, fix bugs and security holes,
or adapt it to new environments. Good practices[19] during initial development make the
difference in this regard. This quality may not be directly apparent to the end user but
it can significantly affect the fate of a program over the long term.

Efficiency/performance: Measure of system resources a program consumes (processor time,

memory space, slow devices such as disks, network bandwidth and to some extent even
user interaction): the less, the better. This also includes careful management of resources,
for example cleaning up temporary files and eliminating memory leaks. This is often
 discussed under the shadow of a chosen programming language. Although the language
certainly affects performance, even slower languages, such as Python, can execute
programs instantly from a human perspective. Speed, resource usage, and performance
are important for programs that bottleneck the system, but efficient use of programmer
time is also important and is related to cost: more hardware may be cheaper.

Using automated tests and fitness functions can help to maintain some of the aforementioned
attributes.[20]

Readability of source code

In computer programming, readability refers to the ease with which a human reader can
comprehend the purpose, control flow, and operation of source code. It affects the aspects
of quality above, including portability, usability and most importantly maintainability.

Readability is important because programmers spend the majority of their time reading,
trying to understand, reusing, and modifying existing source code, rather than writing new
source code. Unreadable code often leads to bugs, inefficiencies, and duplicated code. A
study found that a few simple readability transformations made code shorter and
drastically reduced the time to understand it.[21]

Following a consistent programming style often helps readability. However, readability is

more than just programming style. Many factors, having little or nothing to do with the
ability of the computer to efficiently compile and execute the code, contribute to
readability.[22] Some of these factors include:

Different indent styles (whitespace)

Comments

Decomposition

Naming conventions for objects (such as variables, classes, functions, procedures, etc.)

The presentation aspects of this (such as indents, line breaks, color highlighting, and so on)
are often handled by the source code editor, but the content aspects reflect the
programmer's talent and skills.

Various visual programming languages have also been developed with the intent to resolve
readability concerns by adopting non-traditional approaches to code structure and display.
Integrated development environments (IDEs) aim to integrate all such help. Techniques like
Code refactoring can enhance readability.

Algorithmic complexity

The academic field and the engineering practice of computer programming are concerned
with discovering and implementing the most efficient algorithms for a given class of
problems. For this purpose, algorithms are classified into orders using Big O notation,
which expresses resource use—such as execution time or memory consumption—in terms of the
size of an input. Expert programmers are familiar with a variety of well-established
algorithms and their respective complexities and use this knowledge to choose algorithms
that are best suited to the circumstances.

Methodologies

The first step in most formal software development processes is requirements analysis,
followed by testing to determine value modeling, implementation, and failure elimination
(debugging). There exist a lot of different approaches for each of those tasks. One
approach popular for requirements analysis is Use Case analysis. Many programmers use
forms of Agile software development where the various stages of formal software
development are more integrated together into short cycles that take a few weeks rather
than years. There are many approaches to the Software development process.

Popular modeling techniques include Object-Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD) and
Model-Driven Architecture (MDA). The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a notation used
for both the OOAD and MDA.

A similar technique used for database design is Entity-Relationship Modeling (ER Modeling).

Implementation techniques include imperative languages (object-oriented or procedural),

functional languages, and logic programming languages.

Measuring language usage

It is very difficult to determine what are the most popular modern programming languages.
Methods of measuring programming language popularity include: counting the number of job
advertisements that mention the language,[23] the number of books sold and courses teaching
the language (this overestimates the importance of newer languages), and estimates of the
number of existing lines of code written in the language (this underestimates the number of
users of business languages such as COBOL).

Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications, while some languages
are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications. For example, COBOL is
still strong in corporate data centers[24] often on large mainframe computers, Fortran in
engineering applications, scripting languages in Web development, and C in embedded
software. Many applications use a mix of several languages in their construction and use.
New languages are generally designed around the syntax of a prior language with new
functionality added, (for example C++ adds object-orientation to C, and Java adds
memory management and bytecode to C++, but as a result, loses efficiency and the ability
for low-level manipulation).

Debugging

The first known actual bug causing a

problem in a computer was a moth,
trapped inside a Harvard mainframe,
recorded in a log book entry dated
September 9, 1947.[25] "Bug" was
already a common term for a software
defect when this insect was found.

Debugging is a very important task in the software development process since having defects
in a program can have significant consequences for its users. Some languages are more
prone to some kinds of faults because their specification does not require compilers to
perform as much checking as other languages. Use of a static code analysis tool can help
detect some possible problems. Normally the first step in debugging is to attempt to
reproduce the problem. This can be a non-trivial task, for example as with parallel
processes or some unusual software bugs. Also, specific user environment and usage history
can make it difficult to reproduce the problem.

After the bug is reproduced, the input of the program may need to be simplified to make
it easier to debug. For example, when a bug in a compiler can make it crash when parsing
some large source file, a simplification of the test case that results in only few lines from
the original source file can be sufficient to reproduce the same crash. Trial-and-
error/divide-and-conquer is needed: the programmer will try to remove some parts of the
original test case and check if the problem still exists. When debugging the problem in a
GUI, the programmer can try to skip some user interaction from the original problem
description and check if the remaining actions are sufficient for bugs to appear. Scripting
and breakpointing are also part of this process.

Debugging is often done with IDEs. Standalone debuggers like GDB are also used, and these
often provide less of a visual environment, usually using a command line. Some text editors
such as Emacs allow GDB to be invoked through them, to provide a visual environment.

Programming languages

Different programming languages support different styles of programming (called

programming paradigms). The choice of language used is subject to many considerations,
such as company policy, suitability to task, availability of third-party packages, or
individual preference. Ideally, the programming language best suited for the task at hand
will be selected. Trade-offs from this ideal involve finding enough programmers who know
the language to build a team, the availability of compilers for that language, and the
efficiency with which programs written in a given language execute. Languages form an
approximate spectrum from "low-level" to "high-level"; "low-level" languages are typically
more machine-oriented and faster to execute, whereas "high-level" languages are more
abstract and easier to use but execute less quickly. It is usually easier to code in "high-
level" languages than in "low-level" ones. Programming languages are essential for software
development. They are the building blocks for all software, from the simplest applications to
the most sophisticated ones.

Allen Downey, in his book How To Think Like A Computer Scientist, writes:

The details look different in different languages, but a few basic instructions appear in
just about every language:
Input: Gather data from the keyboard, a file, or some other device.
 Output: Display data on the screen or send data to a file or other device.

Arithmetic: Perform basic arithmetical operations like addition and multiplication.

Conditional Execution: Check for certain conditions and execute the appropriate sequence
of statements.

Repetition: Perform some action repeatedly, usually with some variation.

Many computer languages provide a mechanism to call functions provided by shared

libraries. Provided the functions in a library follow the appropriate run-time conventions
(e.g., method of passing arguments), then these functions may be written in any other
language.

Learning to program

Learning to program has a long history related to professional standards and practices,
academic initiatives and curriculum, and commercial books and materials for students, self-
taught learners, hobbyists, and others who desire to create or customize software for
personal use. Since the 1960s, learning to program has taken on the characteristics of a
popular movement, with the rise of academic disciplines, inspirational leaders, collective
identities, and strategies to grow the movement and make institutionalize change.[26] Through
these social ideals and educational agendas, learning to code has become important not just
for scientists and engineers, but for millions of citizens who have come to believe that
creating software is beneficial to society and its members.

Context

In 1957, there were approximately 15,000 computer programmers employed in the U.S., a
figure that accounts for 80% of the world's active developers. In 2014, there were
approximately 18.5 million professional programmers in the world, of which 11 million can
be considered professional and 7.5 million student or hobbyists.[27] Before the rise of the
commercial Internet in the mid-1990s, most programmers learned about software
construction through books, magazines, user groups, and informal instruction methods, with
academic coursework and corporate training playing important roles for professional
workers.[28]

The first book containing specific instructions about how to program a computer may have
been Maurice Wilkes, David Wheeler, and Stanley Gill's Preparation of Programs for an
Electronic Digital Computer (1951). The book offered a selection of common subroutines for
handling basic operations on the EDSAC, one of the world's first stored-program
computers.

When high-level languages arrived, they were introduced by numerous books and materials
that explained language keywords, managing program flow, working with data, and other
concepts. These languages included FLOW-MATIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, ALGOL, Pascal,
BASIC, and C. An example of an early programming primer from these years is Marshal
H. Wrubel's A Primer of Programming for Digital Computers (1959), which included step-
by-step instructions for filling out coding sheets, creating punched cards, and using the
keywords in IBM's early FORTRAN system.[29] Daniel McCracken's A Guide to FORTRAN
Programming (1961) presented FORTRAN to a larger audience, including students and office
workers.

In 1961, Alan Perlis suggested that all university freshmen at Carnegie Technical Institute
take a course in computer programming.[30] His advice was published in the popular
technical journal Computers and Automation, which became a regular source of information
for professional programmers.

Programmers soon had a range of learning texts at their disposal. Programmer's references
listed keywords and functions related to a language, often in alphabetical order, as well as
technical information about compilers and related systems. An early example was IBM's
Programmers' Reference Manual: the FORTRAN Automatic Coding System for the IBM 704
EDPM (1956).

Over time, the genre of programmer's guides emerged, which presented the features of a
language in tutorial or step by step format. Many early primers started with a program
known as “Hello, World”, which presented the shortest program a developer could create in
a given system. Programmer's guides then went on to discuss core topics like declaring
variables, data types, formulas, flow control, user-defined functions, manipulating data,
and other topics.

Early and influential programmer's guides included John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz's
BASIC Programming (1967), Kathleen Jensen and Niklaus Wirth's The Pascal User Manual
and Report (1971), and Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie's The C Programming Language
(1978). Similar books for popular audiences (but with a much lighter tone) included Bob
Albrecht's My Computer Loves Me When I Speak BASIC (1972), Al Kelley and Ira Pohl's A
Book on C (1984), and Dan Gookin's C for Dummies (1994).
Beyond language-specific primers, there were numerous books and academic journals that
introduced professional programming practices. Many were designed for university courses
in computer science, software engineering, or related disciplines. Donald Knuth's The Art of
Computer Programming (1968 and later), presented hundreds of computational algorithms
and their analysis. The Elements of Programming Style (1974), by Brian W. Kernighan and
P. J. Plauger, concerned itself with programming style, the idea that programs should be
written not only to satisfy the compiler but human readers. Jon Bentley's Programming
Pearls (1986) offered practical advice about the art and craft of programming in
professional and academic contexts. Texts specifically designed for students included Doug
Cooper and Michael Clancy's Oh Pascal! (1982), Alfred Aho's Data Structures and
Algorithms (1983), and Daniel Watt's Learning with Logo (1983).

Technical publishers

As personal computers became mass-market products, thousands of trade books and

magazines sought to teach professional, hobbyist, and casual users to write computer
programs. A sample of these learning resources includes BASIC Computer Games,
Microcomputer Edition (1978), by David Ahl; Programming the Z80 (1979), by Rodnay
Zaks; Programmer's CP/M Handbook (1983), by Andy Johnson-Laird; C Primer Plus
(1984), by Mitchell Waite and The Waite Group; The Peter Norton Programmer's Guide to
the IBM PC (1985), by Peter Norton; Advanced MS-DOS (1986), by Ray Duncan; Learn
BASIC Now (1989), by Michael Halvorson and David Rygymr; Programming Windows (1992
and later), by Charles Petzold; Code Complete: A Practical Handbook for Software
Construction (1993), by Steve McConnell; and Tricks of the Game-Programming Gurus
(1994), by André LaMothe.

The PC software industry spurred the creation of numerous book publishers that offered
programming primers and tutorials, as well as books for advanced software developers.[31]
These publishers included Addison-Wesley, IDG, Macmillan Inc., McGraw-Hill, Microsoft
Press, O'Reilly Media, Prentice Hall, Sybex, Ventana Press, Waite Group Press, Wiley, Wrox
Press, and Ziff-Davis.

Computer magazines and journals also provided learning content for professional and
hobbyist programmers. A partial list of these resources includes Amiga World, Byte
(magazine), Communications of the ACM, Computer (magazine), Compute!, Computer
Language (magazine), Computers and Electronics, Dr. Dobb's Journal, IEEE Software,
Macworld, PC Magazine, PC/Computing, and UnixWorld.
Digital learning / online resources

Between 2000 and 2010, computer book and magazine publishers declined significantly as
providers of programming instruction, as programmers moved to Internet resources to
expand their access to information. This shift brought forward new digital products and
mechanisms to learn programming skills. During the transition, digital books from publishers
transferred information that had traditionally been delivered in print to new and expanding
audiences.[32]

Important Internet resources for learning to code included blogs, wikis, videos, online
databases, subscription sites, and custom websites focused on coding skills. New commercial
resources included YouTube videos, [Link] tutorials (later LinkedIn Learning), Khan
Academy, Codecademy, GitHub, W3Schools, and numerous coding bootcamps.

Most software development systems and game engines included rich online help resources,
including integrated development environments (IDEs), context-sensitive help, APIs, and other
digital resources. Commercial software development kits (SDKs) also provided a collection of
software development tools and documentation in one installable package.

Commercial and non-profit organizations published learning websites for developers, created
blogs, and established newsfeeds and social media resources about programming.
Corporations like Apple, Microsoft, Oracle, Google, and Amazon built corporate websites
providing support for programmers, including resources like the Microsoft Developer
Network (MSDN). Contemporary movements like Hour of Code ([Link]) show how
learning to program has become associated with digital learning strategies, education
agendas, and corporate philanthropy.

Programmers

Computer programmers are those who write computer software. Their jobs usually involve:

Prototyping

Coding

Debugging

Documentation

Integration
 Maintenance

Requirements analysis

Software architecture

Software testing

Specification

Although programming has been presented in the media as a somewhat mathematical

subject, some research shows that good programmers have strong skills in natural human
languages, and that learning to code is similar to learning a foreign language.[33][34]

See also

Code smell Computer

programming portal
Computer networking

Competitive programming

Programming best practices

Systems programming

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Ceruzzi, Paul E. (1998). History of Computing ([Link]
nc00ceru) . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262032551 – via
EBSCOhost.

Evans, Claire L. (2018). Broad Band: The Untold Story of the Women Who Made the
Internet ([Link] .
New York: Portfolio/Penguin. ISBN 9780735211759.

Gürer, Denise (1995). "Pioneering Women in Computer Science" ([Link]

[Link]/courses/csep590/06au/readings/[Link]) (PDF). Communications of the
ACM. 38 (1): 45–54. doi:10.1145/204865.204875 ([Link]
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Smith, Erika E. (2013). "Recognizing a Collective Inheritance through the History of

Women in Computing" ([Link] . CLCWeb:
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Essinger, J., & EBSCO Publishing (Firm). (2014). Ada's algorithm: How lord byron's
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Further reading

A.K. Hartmann, Practical Guide to Computer Simulations ([Link]

90211113048/[Link] , Singapore: World Scientific
(2009)

A. Hunt, D. Thomas, and W. Cunningham, The Pragmatic Programmer. From Journeyman

to Master, Amsterdam: Addison-Wesley Longman (1999)

Brian W. Kernighan, The Practice of Programming, Pearson (1999)

Weinberg, Gerald M., The Psychology of Computer Programming, New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold (1971)

Edsger W. Dijkstra, A Discipline of Programming, Prentice-Hall (1976)

O.-J. Dahl, [Link], C.A.R. Hoare, Structured Programming, Academic Press (1972)

David Gries, The Science of Programming, Springer-Verlag (1981)

External links

Media related to Computer programming at Wikimedia Library resources about

Commons Computer programming

Quotations related to Programming at Wikiquote Online books ([Link]

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