Computer programming

Computer programming or coding is the composition of sequences of instructions, called

programs, that computers can follow to perform tasks.[1][2] It involves designing and implementing
algorithms, step-by-step specifications of procedures, by writing code in one or more programming
languages. Programmers typically use high-level programming languages that are more easily
intelligible to humans than machine code, which is directly executed by the central processing unit.
Proficient programming usually requires expertise in several different subjects, including knowledge
of the application domain, details of programming languages and generic code libraries, specialized
algorithms, and formal logic.

Auxiliary tasks accompanying and related to programming include analyzing requirements, testing,
debugging (investigating and fixing problems), implementation of build systems, and management
of derived artifacts, such as programs' machine code. While these are sometimes considered
programming, often the term software development is used for this larger overall process – with the
terms programming, implementation, and coding reserved for the writing and editing of code per se.
Sometimes software development is known as software engineering, especially when it employs
formal methods or follows an engineering design process.
History

Ada Lovelace, whose notes were added to

the end of Luigi Menabrea's paper included
the first algorithm designed for processing
by Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine.
She is often recognized as history's first
computer programmer.

Programmable devices have existed for centuries. As early as the 9th century, a programmable
music sequencer was invented by the Persian Banu Musa brothers, who described an automated
mechanical flute player in the Book of Ingenious Devices.[3][4] In 1206, the Arab engineer Al-Jazari
invented a programmable drum machine where a musical mechanical automaton could be made to
play different rhythms and drum patterns, via pegs and cams.[5][6] In 1801, the Jacquard loom could
produce entirely different weaves by changing the "program" – a series of pasteboard cards with
holes punched in them.

Code-breaking algorithms have also existed for centuries. In the 9th century, the Arab
mathematician Al-Kindi described a cryptographic algorithm for deciphering encrypted code, in A
Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages. He gave the first description of cryptanalysis by
frequency analysis, the earliest code-breaking algorithm.[7]

The first computer program is generally dated to 1843 when mathematician Ada Lovelace published
an algorithm to calculate a sequence of Bernoulli numbers, intended to be carried out by Charles
Babbage's Analytical Engine.[8] The algorithm, which was conveyed through notes on a translation of
Luigi Federico Menabrea's paper on the analytical engine was mainly conceived by Lovelace as can
be discerned through her correspondence with Babbage. However, Charles Babbage himself had
written a program for the AE in 1837.[9][10] Lovelace was also the first to see a broader application
for the analytical engine beyond mathematical calculations.

Data and instructions were once stored on

external punched cards, which were kept in
order and arranged in program decks.

In the 1880s, Herman Hollerith invented the concept of storing data in machine-readable form.[11]
Later a control panel (plug board) added to his 1906 Type I Tabulator allowed it to be programmed
for different jobs, and by the late 1940s, unit record equipment such as the IBM 602 and IBM 604,
were programmed by control panels in a similar way, as were the first electronic computers.
However, with the concept of the stored-program computer introduced in 1949, both programs and
data were stored and manipulated in the same way in computer memory.[12]

Machine language

Machine code was the language of early programs, written in the instruction set of the particular
machine, often in binary notation. Assembly languages were soon developed that let the
programmer specify instructions in a text format (e.g., ADD X, TOTAL), with abbreviations for each
operation code and meaningful names for specifying addresses. However, because an assembly
language is little more than a different notation for a machine language, two machines with different
instruction sets also have different assembly languages.
 Wired control panel for an IBM 402
Accounting Machine. Wires connect pulse
streams from the card reader to counters
and other internal logic and ultimately to
the printer.

Compiler languages

High-level languages made the process of developing a program simpler and more understandable,
and less bound to the underlying hardware. The first compiler related tool, the A-0 System, was
developed in 1952[13] by Grace Hopper, who also coined the term 'compiler'.[14][15] FORTRAN, the first
widely used high-level language to have a functional implementation, came out in 1957,[16] and
many other languages were soon developed—in particular, COBOL aimed at commercial data
processing, and Lisp for computer research.

These compiled languages allow the programmer to write programs in terms that are syntactically
richer, and more capable of abstracting the code, making it easy to target varying machine
instruction sets via compilation declarations and heuristics. Compilers harnessed the power of
computers to make programming easier[16] by allowing programmers to specify calculations by
entering a formula using infix notation.

Source code entry

Programs were mostly entered using punched cards or paper tape. By the late 1960s, data storage
devices and computer terminals became inexpensive enough that programs could be created by
typing directly into the computers. Text editors were also developed that allowed changes and
corrections to be made much more easily than with punched cards.
Modern programming

Quality requirements

Whatever the approach to development may be, the final program must satisfy some fundamental
properties. The following properties are among the most important:[17] [18]

Reliability: how often the results of a program are correct. This depends on conceptual
correctness of algorithms and minimization of programming mistakes, such as mistakes in
resource management (e.g., buffer overflows and race conditions) and logic errors (such as
division by zero or off-by-one errors).

Robustness: how well a program anticipates problems due to errors (not bugs). This includes
situations such as incorrect, inappropriate or corrupt data, unavailability of needed resources
such as memory, operating system services, and network connections, user error, and unexpected
power outages.

Usability: the ergonomics of a program: the ease with which a person can use the program for its
intended purpose or in some cases even unanticipated purposes. Such issues can make or break
its success even regardless of other issues. This involves a wide range of textual, graphical, and
sometimes hardware elements that improve the clarity, intuitiveness, cohesiveness, and
completeness of a program's user interface.

Portability: the range of computer hardware and operating system platforms on which the source
code of a program can be compiled/interpreted and run. This depends on differences in the
programming facilities provided by the different platforms, including hardware and operating
system resources, expected behavior of the hardware and operating system, and availability of
platform-specific compilers (and sometimes libraries) for the language of the source code.

Maintainability: the ease with which a program can be modified by its present or future developers
in order to make improvements or to customize, fix bugs and security holes, or adapt it to new
environments. Good practices[19] during initial development make the difference in this regard.
This quality may not be directly apparent to the end user but it can significantly affect the fate of a
program over the long term.

Efficiency/performance: Measure of system resources a program consumes (processor time,

memory space, slow devices such as disks, network bandwidth and to some extent even user
interaction): the less, the better. This also includes careful management of resources, for example
cleaning up temporary files and eliminating memory leaks. This is often discussed under the
shadow of a chosen programming language. Although the language certainly affects
 performance, even slower languages, such as Python, can execute programs instantly from a
human perspective. Speed, resource usage, and performance are important for programs that
bottleneck the system, but efficient use of programmer time is also important and is related to
cost: more hardware may be cheaper.

Using automated tests and fitness functions can help to maintain some of the aforementioned
attributes.[20]

Readability of source code

In computer programming, readability refers to the ease with which a human reader can
comprehend the purpose, control flow, and operation of source code. It affects the aspects of
quality above, including portability, usability and most importantly maintainability.

Readability is important because programmers spend the majority of their time reading, trying to
understand, reusing, and modifying existing source code, rather than writing new source code.
Unreadable code often leads to bugs, inefficiencies, and duplicated code. A study found that a few
simple readability transformations made code shorter and drastically reduced the time to
understand it.[21]

Following a consistent programming style often helps readability. However, readability is more than
just programming style. Many factors, having little or nothing to do with the ability of the computer
to efficiently compile and execute the code, contribute to readability.[22] Some of these factors
include:

Different indent styles (whitespace)

Comments

Decomposition

Naming conventions for objects (such as variables, classes, functions, procedures, etc.)

The presentation aspects of this (such as indents, line breaks, color highlighting, and so on) are
often handled by the source code editor, but the content aspects reflect the programmer's talent and
skills.

Various visual programming languages have also been developed with the intent to resolve
readability concerns by adopting non-traditional approaches to code structure and display.
Integrated development environments (IDEs) aim to integrate all such help. Techniques like Code
refactoring can enhance readability.
Algorithmic complexity

The academic field and the engineering practice of computer programming are concerned with
discovering and implementing the most efficient algorithms for a given class of problems. For this
purpose, algorithms are classified into orders using Big O notation, which expresses resource use—
such as execution time or memory consumption—in terms of the size of an input. Expert
programmers are familiar with a variety of well-established algorithms and their respective
complexities and use this knowledge to choose algorithms that are best suited to the
circumstances.

Methodologies

The first step in most formal software development processes is requirements analysis, followed by
testing to determine value modeling, implementation, and failure elimination (debugging). There
exist a lot of different approaches for each of those tasks. One approach popular for requirements
analysis is Use Case analysis. Many programmers use forms of Agile software development where
the various stages of formal software development are more integrated together into short cycles
that take a few weeks rather than years. There are many approaches to the Software development
process.

Popular modeling techniques include Object-Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD) and Model-
Driven Architecture (MDA). The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a notation used for both the
OOAD and MDA.

A similar technique used for database design is Entity-Relationship Modeling (ER Modeling).

Implementation techniques include imperative languages (object-oriented or procedural), functional

languages, and logic programming languages.

Measuring language usage

It is very difficult to determine what are the most popular modern programming languages. Methods
of measuring programming language popularity include: counting the number of job advertisements
that mention the language,[23] the number of books sold and courses teaching the language (this
overestimates the importance of newer languages), and estimates of the number of existing lines of
code written in the language (this underestimates the number of users of business languages such
as COBOL).
Some languages are popular for writing particular kinds of applications, while other languages are
used to write many different kinds of applications. For example, COBOL is still prevalent in corporate
data centers[24] often on large mainframe computers, Fortran in engineering applications, scripting
languages in Web development, and C in embedded software. Many applications use a mix of
several languages in their construction and use. New languages are generally designed around the
syntax of a prior language with new functionality added, (for example C++ adds object-orientation to
C, and Java adds memory management and bytecode to C++, but as a result, loses efficiency and
the ability for low-level manipulation).

Debugging

The first known actual bug causing a

problem in a computer was a moth,
trapped inside a Harvard mainframe,
recorded in a log book entry dated
September 9, 1947.[25] "Bug" was already a
common term for a software defect when
this insect was found.

Debugging is a very important task in the software development process since having defects in a
program can have significant consequences for its users. Some languages are more prone to some
kinds of faults because their specification does not require compilers to perform as much checking
as other languages. Use of a static code analysis tool can help detect some possible problems.
Normally the first step in debugging is to attempt to reproduce the problem. This can be a non-trivial
task, for example as with parallel processes or some unusual software bugs. Also, specific user
environment and usage history can make it difficult to reproduce the problem.

After the bug is reproduced, the input of the program may need to be simplified to make it easier to
debug. For example, when a bug in a compiler can make it crash when parsing some large source
file, a simplification of the test case that results in only few lines from the original source file can be
sufficient to reproduce the same crash. Trial-and-error/divide-and-conquer is needed: the
programmer will try to remove some parts of the original test case and check if the problem still
exists. When debugging the problem in a GUI, the programmer can try to skip some user interaction
from the original problem description and check if the remaining actions are sufficient for bugs to
appear. Scripting and breakpointing are also part of this process.

Debugging is often done with IDEs. Standalone debuggers like GDB are also used, and these often
provide less of a visual environment, usually using a command line. Some text editors such as
Emacs allow GDB to be invoked through them, to provide a visual environment.

Programming languages

Different programming languages support different styles of programming (called programming

paradigms). The choice of language used is subject to many considerations, such as company
policy, suitability to task, availability of third-party packages, or individual preference. Ideally, the
programming language best suited for the task at hand will be selected. Trade-offs from this ideal
involve finding enough programmers who know the language to build a team, the availability of
compilers for that language, and the efficiency with which programs written in a given language
execute. Languages form an approximate spectrum from "low-level" to "high-level"; "low-level"
languages are typically more machine-oriented and faster to execute, whereas "high-level"
languages are more abstract and easier to use but execute less quickly. It is usually easier to code
in "high-level" languages than in "low-level" ones. Programming languages are essential for software
development. They are the building blocks for all software, from the simplest applications to the
most sophisticated ones.

Allen Downey, in his book How To Think Like A Computer Scientist, writes:

The details look different in different languages, but a few basic instructions appear in just about
every language:
Input: Gather data from the keyboard, a file, or some other device.

Output: Display data on the screen or send data to a file or other device.

Arithmetic: Perform basic arithmetical operations like addition and multiplication.

Conditional Execution: Check for certain conditions and execute the appropriate sequence of
statements.

Repetition: Perform some action repeatedly, usually with some variation.

Many computer languages provide a mechanism to call functions provided by shared libraries.
Provided the functions in a library follow the appropriate run-time conventions (e.g., method of
passing arguments), then these functions may be written in any other language.

Learning to program

Learning to program has a long history related to professional standards and practices, academic
initiatives and curriculum, and commercial books and materials for students, self-taught learners,
hobbyists, and others who desire to create or customize software for personal use. Since the 1960s,
learning to program has taken on the characteristics of a popular movement, with the rise of
academic disciplines, inspirational leaders, collective identities, and strategies to grow the
movement and make institutionalize change.[26] Through these social ideals and educational
agendas, learning to code has become important not just for scientists and engineers, but for
millions of citizens who have come to believe that creating software is beneficial to society and its
members.

Context

In 1957, there were approximately 15,000 computer programmers employed in the U.S., a figure that
accounts for 80% of the world's active developers. In 2014, there were approximately 18.5 million
professional programmers in the world, of which 11 million can be considered professional and 7.5
million student or hobbyists.[27] Before the rise of the commercial Internet in the mid-1990s, most
programmers learned about software construction through books, magazines, user groups, and
informal instruction methods, with academic coursework and corporate training playing important
roles for professional workers.[28]

The first book containing specific instructions about how to program a computer may have been
Maurice Wilkes, David Wheeler, and Stanley Gill's Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital
Computer (1951). The book offered a selection of common subroutines for handling basic
operations on the EDSAC, one of the world's first stored-program computers.

When high-level languages arrived, they were introduced by numerous books and materials that
explained language keywords, managing program flow, working with data, and other concepts.
These languages included FLOW-MATIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, ALGOL, Pascal, BASIC, and C. An
example of an early programming primer from these years is Marshal H. Wrubel's A Primer of
Programming for Digital Computers (1959), which included step-by-step instructions for filling out
coding sheets, creating punched cards, and using the keywords in IBM's early FORTRAN system.[29]
Daniel McCracken's A Guide to FORTRAN Programming (1961) presented FORTRAN to a larger
audience, including students and office workers.
In 1961, Alan Perlis suggested that all university freshmen at Carnegie Technical Institute take a
course in computer programming.[30] His advice was published in the popular technical journal
Computers and Automation, which became a regular source of information for professional
programmers.

Programmers soon had a range of learning texts at their disposal. Programmer's references listed
keywords and functions related to a language, often in alphabetical order, as well as technical
information about compilers and related systems. An early example was IBM's Programmers'
Reference Manual: the FORTRAN Automatic Coding System for the IBM 704 EDPM (1956).

Over time, the genre of programmer's guides emerged, which presented the features of a language in
tutorial or step by step format. Many early primers started with a program known as "Hello, World",
which presented the shortest program a developer could create in a given system. Programmer's
guides then went on to discuss core topics like declaring variables, data types, formulas, flow
control, user-defined functions, manipulating data, and other topics.

Early and influential programmer's guides included John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz's BASIC
Programming (1967), Kathleen Jensen and Niklaus Wirth's The Pascal User Manual and Report
(1971), and Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie's The C Programming Language (1978). Similar
books for popular audiences (but with a much lighter tone) included Bob Albrecht's My Computer
Loves Me When I Speak BASIC (1972), Al Kelley and Ira Pohl's A Book on C (1984), and Dan Gookin's
C for Dummies (1994).

Beyond language-specific primers, there were numerous books and academic journals that
introduced professional programming practices. Many were designed for university courses in
computer science, software engineering, or related disciplines. Donald Knuth's The Art of Computer
Programming (1968 and later), presented hundreds of computational algorithms and their analysis.
The Elements of Programming Style (1974), by Brian W. Kernighan and P. J. Plauger, concerned itself
with programming style, the idea that programs should be written not only to satisfy the compiler
but human readers. Jon Bentley's Programming Pearls (1986) offered practical advice about the art
and craft of programming in professional and academic contexts. Texts specifically designed for
students included Doug Cooper and Michael Clancy's Oh Pascal! (1982), Alfred Aho's Data Structures
and Algorithms (1983), and Daniel Watt's Learning with Logo (1983).

Technical publishers

As personal computers became mass-market products, thousands of trade books and magazines
sought to teach professional, hobbyist, and casual users to write computer programs. A sample of
these learning resources includes BASIC Computer Games, Microcomputer Edition (1978), by David
Ahl; Programming the Z80 (1979), by Rodnay Zaks; Programmer's CP/M Handbook (1983), by Andy
Johnson-Laird; C Primer Plus (1984), by Mitchell Waite and The Waite Group; The Peter Norton
Programmer's Guide to the IBM PC (1985), by Peter Norton; Advanced MS-DOS (1986), by Ray
Duncan; Learn BASIC Now (1989), by Michael Halvorson and David Rygymr; Programming Windows
(1992 and later), by Charles Petzold; Code Complete: A Practical Handbook for Software Construction
(1993), by Steve McConnell; and Tricks of the Game-Programming Gurus (1994), by André LaMothe.

The PC software industry spurred the creation of numerous book publishers that offered
programming primers and tutorials, as well as books for advanced software developers.[31] These
publishers included Addison-Wesley, IDG, Macmillan Inc., McGraw-Hill, Microsoft Press, O'Reilly
Media, Prentice Hall, Sybex, Ventana Press, Waite Group Press, Wiley, Wrox Press, and Ziff-Davis.

Computer magazines and journals also provided learning content for professional and hobbyist
programmers. A partial list of these resources includes Amiga World, Byte (magazine),
Communications of the ACM, Computer (magazine), Compute!, Computer Language (magazine),
Computers and Electronics, Dr. Dobb's Journal, IEEE Software, Macworld, PC Magazine, PC/Computing,
and UnixWorld.

Digital learning / online resources

Between 2000 and 2010, computer book and magazine publishers declined significantly as
providers of programming instruction, as programmers moved to Internet resources to expand their
access to information. This shift brought forward new digital products and mechanisms to learn
programming skills. During the transition, digital books from publishers transferred information that
had traditionally been delivered in print to new and expanding audiences.[32]

Important Internet resources for learning to code included blogs, wikis, videos, online databases,
subscription sites, and custom websites focused on coding skills. New commercial resources
included YouTube videos, [Link] tutorials (later LinkedIn Learning), Khan Academy,
Codecademy, GitHub, W3Schools, Codewars, and numerous coding bootcamps.

Most software development systems and game engines included rich online help resources,
including integrated development environments (IDEs), context-sensitive help, APIs, and other
digital resources. Commercial software development kits (SDKs) also provided a collection of
software development tools and documentation in one installable package.
Commercial and non-profit organizations published learning websites for developers, created blogs,
and established newsfeeds and social media resources about programming. Corporations like
Apple, Microsoft, Oracle, Google, and Amazon built corporate websites providing support for
programmers, including resources like the Microsoft Developer Network (MSDN). Contemporary
movements like Hour of Code ([Link]) show how learning to program has become associated
with digital learning strategies, education agendas, and corporate philanthropy.

Programmers

Computer programmers are those who write computer software. Their jobs usually involve:

Prototyping

Coding

Debugging

Documentation

Integration

Maintenance

Requirements analysis

Software architecture

Software testing

Specification

Although programming has been presented in the media as a somewhat mathematical subject,
some research shows that good programmers have strong skills in natural human languages, and
that learning to code is similar to learning a foreign language.[33][34]

See also

Code smell Computer programming

portal
Computer networking

Competitive programming

List of software programming journals

List of free and open-source software packages for programming

 Programming best practices

Systems programming

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du/2020/brain-reading-computer-code-1215) . MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. December 15, 2020. Retrieved July 29, 2023.

Sources

Ceruzzi, Paul E. (1998). History of Computing ([Link]

u) . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262032551 – via EBSCOhost.

Evans, Claire L. (2018). Broad Band: The Untold Story of the Women Who Made the Internet (https://
[Link]/books?id=C8ouDwAAQBAJ&q=9780735211759&pg=PP1) . New York:
Portfolio/Penguin. ISBN 9780735211759.

Gürer, Denise (1995). "Pioneering Women in Computer Science" ([Link]

du/courses/csep590/06au/readings/[Link]) (PDF). Communications of the ACM. 38
(1): 45–54. doi:10.1145/204865.204875 ([Link] .
 S2CID 6626310 ([Link] . Archived ([Link]
[Link]/archive/20221009/[Link]
s/[Link]) (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.

Smith, Erika E. (2013). "Recognizing a Collective Inheritance through the History of Women in
Computing" ([Link] . CLCWeb: Comparative Literature &
Culture. 15 (1): 1–9. doi:10.7771/1481-4374.1972 ([Link]
2) .

Essinger, J., & EBSCO Publishing (Firm). (2014). Ada's algorithm: How lord byron's daughter ada
lovelace launched the digital age. Melville House.

Further reading

A.K. Hartmann, Practical Guide to Computer Simulations ([Link]

3048/[Link] , Singapore: World Scientific (2009)

A. Hunt, D. Thomas, and W. Cunningham, The Pragmatic Programmer. From Journeyman to Master,
Amsterdam: Addison-Wesley Longman (1999)

Brian W. Kernighan, The Practice of Programming, Pearson (1999)

Weinberg, Gerald M., The Psychology of Computer Programming, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold
(1971)

Edsger W. Dijkstra, A Discipline of Programming, Prentice-Hall (1976)

O.-J. Dahl, [Link], C.A.R. Hoare, Structured Programming, Academic Press (1972)

David Gries, The Science of Programming, Springer-Verlag (1981)

External links

Media related to Computer programming at Wikimedia Library resources about

Commons Computer programming

Quotations related to Programming at Wikiquote Online books ([Link]

[Link]/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Com
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P)
Resources in your library (https://
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