Unit-II: Transistors and Technology

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor device consisting of two p-n
junctions. It is used for amplification and switching applications. The three terminals are: Emitter
(E), Base (B), and Collector (C). There are two types of BJTs: NPN and PNP.

Construction of BJT
A BJT is formed by sandwiching a thin region of one type of semiconductor between two regions
of another type. For NPN transistor, a thin P-region is placed between two N-regions, whereas for
PNP transistor, a thin N-region is placed between two P-regions.

• In NPN transistor: Electrons are the majority carriers.

• In PNP transistor: Holes are the majority carriers

 Emitter (E) : The outermost layer of a transistor, is commonly known as the emitter, it is
heavily doped with N- type or P-type semiconductor material. P-type material is often employed
to produce the emitter of a PNP transistor, whereas N-type material is mostly utilized
for creating the emitter of a NPN transistor.
 Base (B): The intermediate layer is called the base, it forms a narrow zone between the emitter
and collector and is slightly doped. Its made up of different material than the emitter. A NPN
transistor's base is P-type, while a PNP transistor's base is of N-type.
 Collector (C): The inner layer is called as collector, and it has a modest doping level. The type
of semiconductor used in the designing is the same as that of the emitter. An NPN transistor's
collector is formed from N-type material, whereas a PNP transistor's collector is made of P-type
material.
 There are two junctions formed in BJT . They are -
 Emitter-Base junction: The Emitter-Base junction of a BJT refers to the junction that
is formed between the emitter and base. During normal operation , this junction is forward-
biased.
 Collector-Base junction : Collector-Base junction is the name given to the junction that is
formed between the collector and base. During normal operation, this junction is reverse-biased.

Bipolar Transistor Configurations

There are basically three possible ways to connect BJT in an electric circuit are:
 Common Collector Configuration
 Common Base Configuration
 Common Emitter Configuration.

Working of BJT in Common Emitter Configuration

In common emitter configuration, base is the input terminal, collector is the output terminal and
emitter is the common terminal for both input and output.

The input signal is applied between the base and emitter terminals while the output signal is
taken between the collector and emitter terminals. The supply voltage between base and emitter is
denoted by VBE while the supply voltage between collector and emitter is denoted by VCE.
In common emitter (CE) configuration, input current or base current is denoted by IB and output
current orcollector current is denoted by IC.
Input characteristics
The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or base current (I B) and
input voltage or base-emitter voltage (VBE).To determine the input characteristics, the output
voltage VCE is kept constant at zero volts and the input voltage VBE is increased from zero volts
to different voltage levels. The base current IB increases with the increases in the emitter-base
voltage VBE.
Input Resistance: The ratio of change in base-emitter voltage VBE to the change in base
current ∆IB at constant collector-emitter voltage VCE is known as input resistance, i.e.,

Output Characteristic:

In CE configuration the curve draws between collector current I C and collector-emitter voltage
VCE at a constant base current IB is called output characteristic. The characteristic curve for the
typical NPN transistor in CE configuration is shown in the figure below.
Here BJT is operates in three region:

Active region: The transistor is on in this region. When the collector-base junction is reverse-
biased while the emitter-base junction is in forward-bias, then BJT works in the active area.
As a result, BJT is used as an amplifier. The collector current is proportional to and controlled
by the base current and relatively insensitive to VCE. In this region the transistor can be an
amplifier.
(IC = β X IB)
Saturation region: The saturation region arises when the collector-base junctions and the
emitter-base junction are both forward-biased. The transistor is on. The collector current
varies very little with a change in the base current in the saturation region. The VCE is small,
a few tenths of a volt. The collector current is strongly dependent on VCE unlike in the active
region. In this region the transistor can be used as a ON switch.
Ic = I(saturation)
Cut-off region: When emitter-base and collector-base junctions are both in the reversed bias,
the BJT is off in this condition and vary small amount of current flows from collector to the
emitter. There is no current between emitter and the collector. . In this region the transistor
can be used as a Off switch.
(IB = 0 therefore IC = 0)

Output Resistance: The ratio of the variation in collector-emitter voltage to the collector-
emitter current is known at collector currents at a constant base current I B is called output
resistance ro.

Application of BJT as a Switch.

For switching applications, transistor is need to biased in Saturation region (ON switch) and in
cutoff region(OFF Switch).

Transistor in cutoff region (Off Switch) :

 In Cut-off region , Emitter-Base junction of transistor is reverse bias, so Collector current path
is open and transistor act as a open (off) switch.

1) Transistor in Saturation region (ON Switch) :

In saturation region , Both Emitter-Base and Collector- Base junction of transistor are Forward
bias, so Collector current path is closed and transistor act as a closed (ON) switch.

Application of BJT as an Amplifier:

Common emitter RC coupled amplifier

The common emitter RC coupled amplifier is one of the simplest and elementary transistor
amplifier that can be made. The main purpose of this circuit is pre-amplification i.e to make
weak signals strong enough for further processing or amplification. If designed properly, this
amplifier can provide excellent signal characteristics. The circuit diagram of a single stage
common emitter RC coupled amplifier using transistor is shown in Fig.
Capacitor Cin is the input DC decoupling capacitor which blocks any DC component if
present in the input signal from reaching the Q1 base. If any external DC voltage reaches the
base of Q1, it will alter the biasing conditions and affects the performance of the amplifier.
R1 and R2 are the biasing resistors. This network provides the transistor Q1’s base with the
necessary bias voltage to drive it into the active region. For a transistor amplifier to function
properly, it should operate in the active region.

Voltage Gain of Amplifier= Vout/ Vin

MOSFET:
A MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) is a type of transistor that
uses an electric field to control the flow of current. It's a fundamental component in
electronic circuits, acting as a voltage-controlled switch or amplifier. MOSFETs are known
for their high switching speed, low power consumption, and high input impedance.

MOSFET Types:
Classification by Mode of Operation

 Enhancement (E-MOSFET):

These are normally-off devices. A minimum gate-to-source voltage (VGS) must be

applied to create the conductive channel and turn them on.
 Depletion (D-MOSFET):
These are normally-on devices. A gate-to-source voltage is applied to reduce the
number of charge carriers in the channel and deplete it, turning the device off.

Classification by Channel Type

 N-channel (NMOS):
Conducts current using negatively charged electrons.
Turns on when a positive voltage is applied to the gate.
These are the most common type due to better performance.

 P-channel (PMOS):
Conducts current using positively charged holes.
Turns on when a negative voltage is applied to the gate.
 Symbol of MOSFET (Enhancement Type)

Enhancement Type MOSFET

In this type of MOSFET, no channel is present from the beginning and hence no current
flows. But when the +ve voltage more than the threshold voltage is applied, it leads to an
enhancement of a channel between the drain and source due to the gate voltage and thus it
results in the conductivity of device. They are mostly used in digital applications.

Working Principle of MOSFET (N- channel)

A MOSFET consists of three terminals- drain, source and gate. By applying

some voltage across gate and source, there forms a inversion layer or a channel between the
drain and source if the voltage applied is threshold voltage. (Threshold voltage is the minimum
required voltage for the conduction of current) . If the applied voltage is less than the threshold
voltage, no channel is formed. Hence current cannot flow in the MOSFET. This situation is
called as Cutoff region (OFF).
And after a certain level of voltage, the current becomes constant in the MOSFET. This
condition is called as saturation point. MOSFET is a voltage controlled device so the thickness
of channel and the amount of current depends upon the voltage applied across gate and source.
If more voltage applied, width of channel increases and more amount of current able to flow
through the device.

Characteristics: (a) Transfer characteristics (b) Output characteristics/ Drain Characteristics

(a) Transfer characteristics: (ID Vs. VGS)

These characteristics give the transconductance, gm of the transistor. The transconductance relates
the output current to the input voltage representing the gain of the transistor. The slope of the
transconductance curve at any point along it is therefore given as: gm = ID/VGS for a constant value
of VDS.
This ratio is called the transistors static or DC transconductance which is short for “transfer
conductance” and is given the unit of Siemens (S), as its amps per volt. Voltage gain of a
MOSFET amplifier is directly proportional to the transconductance and to the value of the drain
resistor.
At VGS = 0, no current flows through the MOS transistors channel because the field effect around
the gate is insufficient to create or “open” the n-type channel. Then the transistor is in its cut-off
region acting as an open switch. In other words, with zero gate voltage applied the n-channel E-
MOSFET is said to be normally-off and this OFF” condition is represented by the broken channel
line in the eMOSFET symbol (unlike the depletion types that have a continuous channel line).
For gradually increase in positive gate-source voltage VGS, the field effect begins to enhance the
channel regions conductivity and there becomes a point where the channel starts to conduct. This
point is known as the threshold voltage VTH. As we increase VGS more positive, the conductive
channel becomes wider (less resistance) with the amount of drain current, I D increases as a result.
The gate never conducts any current as its electrical isolated from the channel giving MOSFET
amplifier extremely high input impedance.
Therefore the n-channel enhancement MOSFET will be in its cut-off mode when the gate-
source voltage, VGS is less than its threshold voltage level, VTH and its channel conducts or
saturates when VGS is above this threshold level. In the saturation region the drain current, ID is
given by:
ID = k (VGS-VTH)2
Where k (conduction parameter)
(b) Output characteristics/ Drain Characteristics (ID Vs. VDS)

The lowest curve is the VGST curve. When VGS is lesser than VGST, ID is approximately zero. When
VGS is greater than VGST, the device turns- on and the drain current ID is controlled by the gate
voltage. The characteristic curves have almost vertical and almost horizontal parts. The almost
vertical components of the curves correspond to the ohmic region, and the horizontal components
correspond to the constant current region. Thus E-MOSFET can be operated in either of these
regions i.e. it can be used as a variable-voltage resistor or as a constant current source.
MOSFET as a switch

Cut-off Region (Off Switch)

 The input and Gate are grounded ( 0V )

 Gate-source voltage less than threshold
voltage VGS < VTH
 MOSFET is “OFF” ( Cut-off region )
 No Drain current flows ( ID = 0 Amps )
 VOUT = VDS = VDD = ”1″
 MOSFET operates as an “open switch”

Saturation Region (On Switch)

 The input and Gate are connected to VDD

 Gate-source voltage is much
greater than thresholdvoltage VGS >
VTH
 MOSFET is “ON” ( saturation region )
 Max Drain current flows ( ID = VDD / RL )
 VDS = 0V (ideal saturation)
 Min channel resistance RDS(on) < 0.1Ω
 VOUT = VDS ≅ 0.2V due to RDS(on)
 MOSFET operates as a low resistance “closed
switch”
MOSFET as an amplifier

An Enhancement MOSFET does not conduct when the gate-source voltage, VGS is less than
the threshold voltage, VTH but as the gates forward bias increases, the drain current, ID (also
known as drain-source current IDS) will also increase, similar to a bipolar transistor, making
the E- MOSFET ideal for use in MOSFET amplifier circuits.

With a fixed VDS drain-source voltage connected across the eMOSFET we can plot the values
of drain current, ID with varying values of VGS to obtain a graph of the mosfets forward DC
characteristics. These characteristics give the transconductance, gm of the transistor.

This transconductance relates the output current to the input voltage representing the gain of
the transistor. The slope of the transconductance curve at any point along it is therefore given
as: gm = ID/VGS for a constant value of VDS.

So for example, assume a MOS transistor passes a drain current of 2mA when VGS = 3v and
a drain current of 14mA when VGS = 7v. Then:

This ratio is called the transistors static or DC transconductance which is short for “transfer
conductance” and is given the unit of Siemens (S), as its amps per volt. Voltage gain of a
MOSFET amplifier is directly proportional to the transconductance and to the value of the
drain resistor.
Introduction to FinFET

A FinFET (Fin Field-Effect Transistor) is a three-dimensional non-planar transistor

where a thin silicon fin forms the conducting channel, with the gate wrapping around
the fin to provide superior control over the channel. This design overcomes
limitations of traditional planar transistors by reducing short-channel effects, offering
better current driving capability, and lowering power consumption, making it crucial
for modern high-performance and low-power integrated circuits in devices like
smartphones, computers, and automotive electronics.
Structure:

Key Features
Three-Dimensional Structure:
Unlike traditional planar (flat) transistors, FinFETs have a vertical, fin-shaped
channel that stands out from the silicon substrate.
Enhanced Gate Control:
The gate is positioned on the sides of the fin, wrapping around it to control the
channel's conductivity. This double-gate (or triple-gate) structure gives the gate
more effective control over the channel compared to a single-gate planar transistor.
Reduced Leakage:
The fin-like structure and the buried oxide layer beneath the fin help cut off leakage
paths, reducing unwanted current flow and power consumption.
Introduction to GAAFET

A Gate-All-Around Field-Effect Transistor (GAAFET) is an advanced transistor design, an

evolution of the FinFET, where the gate material fully encircles the channel (nanowire or
nanosheet) to provide superior electrostatic control. This design improves current drivability,
reduces leakage currents, and enables continued scaling of chip technology beyond the limits of
FinFETs, allowing for smaller, more powerful, and more energy-efficient integrated circuits for
applications from mobile phones to high-performance computing.

Structure:

Key Features
Enhanced Gate Control:
In a GAAFET, the gate wraps around the entire channel, increasing the contact area between
the gate and the channel by 15-20% compared to a FinFET.
Improved Electrostatic Control:
This increased contact area provides better control over the flow of current through the
channel, leading to reduced short-channel effects.
Reduced Leakage:
Superior gate control helps to minimize subthreshold leakage currents, which are a major
concern in smaller transistors, resulting in lower power consumption.
Questions:
1. What is BJT? How it is formed?

2. Explain emitter base and collector base junction of transistor.

3. Explain working of BJT in CE configuration.

4. Draw and explain input characteristics of BJT in CE configuration.

5. Draw and explain output characteristics of BJT in CE configuration.

6. Explain the operation of BJT as a Switch.

7. Explain with a neat circuit diagram, functions of each component in single stage CE
amplifier.
8. Explain the operation of BJT as an amplifier.
9. Explain operation of n-channel enhancement type MOSFET.
10. Draw and explain transfer and drain characteristics of enhancement type N-channel
MOSFET.
11. Explain the operation of MOSFET as a switch.
12. Explain the operation of MOSFET as an amplifier.

13. Write short note on FinFET.

14. Write short note on GAAFET.