VISCOSITY

There is a relative motion between the adjacent layers of the liquid during its flow. The internal tangential forces act
on the layers opposing this relative motion is called viscous force.
Let us consider, a stream of liquid is flowing over a horizontal surface. The layer in contact
with the surface is at rest and the velocity of other layers increases uniformly.
A portion of liquid which has the shape ABCD at any instant becomes deformed to the
shape A/B/C/D/ after a moment and the deformation continuously increases.
Therefore, due to the flow of liquid, there is a sliding of parallel layer over each other. The
layer which is lower exerts a viscous force F1 on the upper layer tending to drag it
backwards while the upper faster layer exerts an equal force F2 (= F1) on the lower layer
but tending to drag it forward.
Hence, the viscous force decreases the relative velocities between the layers and the
property is called as viscosity.

Let us consider, two layers of liquid A and B are separated by a very small distance dx,
and moving with speed v and (v + dv) respectively. As layer B is moving with higher velocity, retarding tangential
force F is applied by layer A on B to decrease its speed.
Similarly, layer B applies force F on A in its direction of motion to increase its speed. Hence all the layers maintain
the same speed.
The viscous force F is directly proportional to the area of the layer A. So, F ∝ A
dv dv
It is directly proportional to the velocity gradient dx. So, F ∝
dx
dv
Therefore, F ∝ A dx
dv
Or, F = η A dx.
Where η is called coefficient of viscosity.
The coefficient of viscosity of a liquid is defined as the tangential viscous drag acting per unit area between two
layers moving with unit velocity gradient.
[F] [MLT−2 ]
The dimensional formula of coefficient of viscosity is [η] = dv = LT−1
= [ML-1T-1].
[A][ ] [L2 ][ ]
dx L
C.G.S. unit of coefficient of viscosity is poise.
The coefficient of viscosity of a liquid is 1 poise if the tangential viscous drag of 1 dyne acts on 1 cm-2 surface area
1dyne
between two layers moving with a velocity gradient of 1 cms-1 per cm (= s-1). 1 poise = 1cms−1
1cm2 ( )
1cm
SI unit of coefficient of viscosity is poiseuille (PI).
The coefficient of viscosity of a liquid is 1 poiseuille if the tangential viscous drag of 1 N acts on 1 m-2 surface area
between two layers moving with a velocity gradient of 1 ms-1 per m (= s-1).
1N 105 dyne
1 poiseuille = 1ms−1
= 100cms−1
= 10 poise = 1 decapoise.
1m2 ( ) 100cm2 ( )
1m 1cm

Relation between viscosity and temperature: The viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in temperature. It
1 Cρ
varies as ηρ−3 = Ae T where ρ is the density of liquid, T is absolute temperature and A and C are constant.

In case of gas, viscosity increases with increase in temperature. For small range of temperature variation, the
1
kT2
variation of viscosity is η = η0 S where η is the coefficient of viscosity at 00 C and k and S are constant.
1+
T
This is known as Sutherland’s formula.

Streamline and turbulent flow:

When the flow of liquid is such that each particle passing a certain point follows the same path as the preceding
particles which passed the same point, then the flow is said streamline.
The path followed by the particles in steady flow is called streamline. Therefore, it may be defined as the straight or
curve path such that the tangent drawn at any point on the path indicates the direction of flow of the liquid at that
point.
Whenever the liquid flows in streamline flow and all the stream lines are parallel to the fixed surface then the layer
glide over one another without mixing. This flow is called laminar flow.
If the tangent drawn at any point on the path of a particle flow does not indicate the direction of velocity of flow of
liquid at that point, then the flow is turbulent.
The translational velocity at which a streamline flow turns into turbulent is called critical velocity.
When a liquid moves with a velocity greater than its critical velocity the motion of the particle of the liquid becomes
disorder or irregular, such a flow is called turbulent.

Reynold’s number: Reynold’s number indicates the flow of liquid is either laminar or turbulent.
The velocity of the liquid depends on the coefficient of viscosity (v ∝ ηa )
The velocity of the liquid depends on the density of the liquid (v ∝ ρb )
The velocity of the liquid depends on the diameter of the tube (v ∝ dc )
Therefore, v ∝ ηa ρb dc or, v = k ηa ρb dc (where k is the dimensionless constant)
Using dimensional formula we get, [LT-1] = [ML−1 T −1 ]a [ML−3 ]b [L]c
Or, [M 0 LT-1] = [M a+b L−a−3b+c T −a ]
Comparing the powers of both sides of the equation we get, a + b = 0 ----(i)
-a -3b + c = 1 ------(ii)
-a = -1 or, a = 1 ------(iii)
Therefore, b = -1 and c = 1+1-3 = -1
So, v = kη1 ρ−1 d−1
Nη
∴ v = ρd (where k = N = ReynoId’s number)
The value of N in between 0 to 2000 is streamline and above 3000 is turbulent.

Stokes’ law and terminal velocity: When a body (example spherical ball) is dropped in a viscous medium it drags the layer of
fluid in contact with it. This produces a relative motion between the layers of the fluid which provides a viscous force on the
falling body. According to Stokes’ law, this viscous force depends on the coefficient of viscosity (F ∝ ηa ).
This viscous force depends on the radius of the sphere (F ∝ r b ).
This viscous force depends on the velocity of the sphere (F ∝ v c ).
Therefore, F ∝ ηa r b v c or, F = kηa r b vc (where k is the dimensionless constant)
Using dimensional formula we get, [MLT −2 ] = [ML−1 T −1 ]a [L]b[LT-1]c
Or, [MLT −2 ] = [M a ][L−a+b+c ][T −a−c ]
Comparing the powers of both sides we get,
a = 1 ----- --(i)
-a + b + c = 1 ----- --(ii)
-a - c = -2 ------(iii) or, c = 2-a or, c = 2-1 = 1
From equation (ii) b = 1+a-c = 1+1-1= 1
So, F = kηrv
The experimental value of k = 6π ∴ F = 6πηrv.

Terminal velocity: When a body is dropped in a viscous fluid the weight of the body is downward, buoyancy acts in upward
and the viscous force acts upward which depends on the velocity of the body. So, at an instant for a specific velocity the net
force of the body is zero. Therefore, the body moves with a maximum constant downward force. This velocity is called
terminal velocity.
Let us consider, a sphere of radius r, density ρ moves with terminal velocity v in fluid of density σ.
4πr3 ρg
The weight of the body is W =
3
4πr3 σg
The buoyancy acts on the body is U =
3
The viscous force acts on the body is F = 6πηrv
So, W = U + F
Or, F = W - U
4πr3 (ρ−σ)g
Or, 6πηrv =
3
2r2 (ρ−σ)g
Or, v = .
9η
Example: Two equal drops of water are flowing through air with a steady velocity of 5 cms-1. If the drops coalesce,
what will be the new velocity?
Let, r be the radius of each drop. The terminal velocity v of a drop of radius r and density ρ, falling through air is
2r2 (ρ−σ)g
given by v = .
9η
Where η is the coefficient of viscosity and σ is the density of air. Therefore, v ∝ r2.
4
Volume of each drop is 3 πr 3 .
4
Volume of the coalesced drop is 2× 3 πr 3 .
1
Radius of the coalesced drop is (2)3 r.
2
Hence, the terminal velocity of the coalesced drop is v/ ∝ (2)3 r2
2
∴ v/ = (2)3 × 5 = 7.94 cms-1.

Equation of continuity: For the streamline flow of incompressible liquid, the Mass of a liquid passes through any
cross section of a tube for unit time is constant.
If we consider two points A and B of a tube where velocity of liquid at point A and B
are respectively v1 and v2 and the cross-sectional area of the tube at these two
points are respectively α1 and α2 .
The volume of liquid flowing per second through A is α1 v1.
The mass of liquid flowing per second through A is α1 v1 ρ.
Similarly, mass of liquid flowing per second through B is α2 v2 ρ.
According to law of conservation of mass, we get, α1 v1 ρ = α2 v2 ρ.
So, αv = constant
It signifies that if the cross-sectional area of a tube is small then the velocity of liquid through the area is high.

Bernoulli's theorem: For the streamline flow of a non-viscous and incompressible fluid the sum of the pressure energy, kinetic
energy and potential energy per unit mass is constant.
Let us consider, a fluid of density p flows through a tube. The pressure, height and cross-sectional area of the tube at point A
and B are respectively P1 and P2 , h1 and h2 , a1 and a2 . The velocity of the fluid at point A and B are respectively v1 and v2 .
Pressure energy - Let us consider, a small amount of fluid of mass m enters at point A in time t. The distance covers at that
time is v1 t along the direction of force P1 a1. If W1 is the work done on the fluid by the force P1 a1 , then W1 = P1 a1 × v1 t.
When the same mass leaves point B in time t, then similarly the work done by the force P2 a2 is W2 = P2 a2 × v2 t.
If W is the network done by the pressure to drive the fluid of mass m from point A to B then, W = W1 - W2 = P1 a1 v1t - P2 a2 v2 t.
1 1
The increase in kinetic energy of the fluid of mass m is mv22 - 2mv12
2
The increase in potential energy of the fluid of mass m is mgh2 - mgh1
According to work energy principle, net work done = increase in kinetic energy +
increase in potential energy
1 1
Or, P1 a1 v1t - P2 a2 v2 t = (2mv22 - 2mv12 ) + (mgh2 - mgh1 ) ------- (i)
The volume of fluid enters at point A is equal to the volume of fluid leaves at point B.
m
So, a1 v1t = a2 v2t = (where ρ is the density of fluid)
ρ
m 1
Then from equation (i) we get, ρ (P1 - P2 ) = 2m(v22 - v12 ) + mg(h2 - h1 )
1 1
Or, ρ(P1 - P2 ) = 2 (v22 - v12 ) + g(h2 - h1 )
P1 v21 P2 v22
Or, + + gh1 = + + gh2
ρ 2 ρ 2
P v2
Or, ρ + 2 + gh = constant.

During wind storm, the roof of huts are blown off without damaging the wall of the hut.
According to Bernoulli's principle, due to heavy speed of wind the pressure applied by the
wind on the roof of the hut is less than the inside pressure of the hut. Due to pressure
difference, the roof of the hut lifts off.
Whenever running train passes through to the station, passengers are advised to stay at a safe distance from the
train. As the train is moving with high speed the air between the man and the train also moving with high speed.
Therefore, the air between man and train is less according to Bernoulli's principle. But the pressure of air backside of
the man remains same. The man experiences the pressure difference and the excess pressure of air pushes the
man towards the train which can cause an accident.

Torricelli’s theorem:
Water of height H is contained in a cylindrical vessel and there is an orifice at a height h from upper surface. Let us
consider, A is any point on the upper surface of water and B is a point at the orifice. We can calculate the velocity of
water flowing through the orifice by using Bernoulli's principle. At point A velocity of the liquid is zero and
atmospheric pressure is P.
At point B velocity of water is v and atmospheric pressure is P.
According to Bernoulli's principle, energy at A = energy at B
P P v2
ρ
+ gH = ρ + g(H-h) + 2
[ρ is the density of water]
Or, v = √2gh. v is also called as speed of efflux.

The water stream emerging from the hole follows a parabolic path. If t be the time taken
1
by water to cover the vertical distance (H - h), then, H-h = 2 gt 2
2(H−h)
Or, t = √ g
There is no acceleration due to gravity in the horizontal direction. Hence the horizontal distance x covered in time t is
2(H−h)
given by x = vt = √2gh × √ = 2√h(H − h).
g
dx
To find the value of h for which x is maximum, we can use dh = 0
d√h(H−h)
Or, =0
dh
1 1
Or, (H – 2h) = 0
2 √h(H−h)
Or, H – 2h = 0
H
∴ h = 2.

Venturimeter:
This instrument is used to measure the rate of flow of water through a pipe using Bernoulli's principle.
Let us consider, A1 is the area of cross section of the main pipe (a and b) and A2 is that of the constricted throat c.
Let us consider, P1 and P2 are the pressure and v1 and v2 are the velocity of liquid in a and c respectively.
From equation of continuity, the velocity and area of cross section in a and c are
related as v1A1 = v2A2
A v
Or, 1 = 2 ------ (i)
A 2 v 1
1 1
Using Bernoulli's principle for the liquid in pipe a and c we get, P1 + ρv12 = P2 + 2 ρv22
2
where ρ is the density of liquid.
1
P1 - P2 = 2 ρ(v22 - v12 ) ------ (ii)
If h be the difference of levels in the manometer tubes, then P1 - P2 = hρg
1
From equation (ii) we get, hρg = 2 ρ(v22 - v12 )
1 v2
Or, gh = 2 v12 (v22 -1)
1
1 2 A21
Or, gh = v ( -1) [from equation (i)]
2 1 A22

2gh
Or, v12 = A22 (A2 −A2)
1 2
2gh
∴ v1 = A2 √A2 −A2
1 2
2gh
If Q be the volume of liquid flowing per second through the pipe, then Q = v1A1 = A1A2 √A2 −A2.
1 2
Liquid flow through capillary tube (Poiseuille’s equation):
Whenever liquid passes through a tube of uniform cross section in streamline flow then, we can calculate the volume
of liquid passing through the tube per unit time by Poiseuille’s equation.
He made the following assumptions:
1. The flow is streamline and parallel to the axis of the tube.
2. There is no acceleration of the liquid at any point i.e. the flow is steady.
3. The pressure over any cross section of the tube is constant and there is no radial flow of liquid.
4. The liquid in contact with the wall of the tube is at rest.

Let us consider, liquid flows through a horizontal tube of length l radius a. A constant pressure difference P is
maintained in between two ends of the tube. The velocity of liquid flowing through the tube is maximum along the
axis and is zero at the wall of the tube.
Let us consider, a liquid layer at a distance r from the axis of the tube moves
with speed v.
The liquid at the outer side of the cylinder is flowing with a smaller velocity and
dv
exerts a backward viscus force on the cylinder is F = η(2πrl)(− dr )
dv
Where η is the coefficient of viscosity and is the velocity gradient.
dr
On the other hand, the force tending to accelerate this liquid cylinder =
(pressure difference between its end) × (area of cross section) = Pπr 2
dv
As there is no acceleration of the liquid, then Pπr 2 = - 2ηπrl dr
P
Or, dv = - (2ηl)rdr
Pr2
Integrating both side of the equation, we get v = - + c ------ (i)
4ηl
Where c is the integration constant. At the wall of the tube r = a, velocity of liquid v =
Pa2
0. Putting the value in equation (i) we get, c = .
4ηl
P(a2 −r2 )
∴v= .
4ηl
This is the equation of parabola which represents the velocity distribution in the streamline flow of the liquid with
respect to the axis of the tube. The variation between the speed of liquid layer v and radial distance from the axis r is
shown in the graph.
The length of the arrows are proportional to the velocity at their respective positions.

Let us consider, a thin cylindrical shell of radii r and r+dr. The volume of liquid flowing per second through that shell
P(a2 −r2 )
is dQ = v(2πrdr) = (2πrdr)
4ηl
a P(a2 −r2 ) Pπ a
If Q is the volume of liquid flowing per second through the whole tube, then Q = ∫0 4ηl
2πrdr = 2ηl ∫0 (a2 r − r 3 )dr
Pπ a2 r2 r4 a Pπ a4 a4 πPa4
= 2ηl[ 2
- ]
4 0
= 2ηl[ 2 - 4
] = 8lη
.
This is known as Poiseuille's formula.
a
Example: Deduce the fraction of the liquid which flows through the section upon distance from the axis, where a is
2
the radius of the capillary.
P(a2 −r2 )
The velocity of liquid flow at a distance r from the axis of the capillary tube is given by v = .
4ηl
The volume of liquid flowing per second through a thin cylindrical shell of radii r and r + dr is given by dQ = v(2πrdr)
P(a2 −r2 ) Pπ(a2 −r2 )rdr
= (2πrdr) =
4ηl 2ηl
a
The volume of liquid is Q/ flowing per second through the section of the tube upto the distance from the axis is
2
a
obtained by integrating the expression between the limits r = 0 to r = 2.
a
a
P ∫02(a2 r−r3 )dr P r2 r4 2 P a2 a4 7 πPa4
Q = /
= 2lη [a2 - ] = 2lη [a2 - 64] = 16 ( )
2ηl 2 4 0 8 8lη
πPa4
The volume of liquid Q flowing through the entire tube is Q = 8lη
.
Q/ 7
∴ = 16.
Q
Flow of liquid when two capillary tubes are connected in (i) series (ii) parallel:
Capillaries in series: Let us consider, two capillary of radii a1 and a2 and length l1 and l2 are joined in series. The rate
πP1 a41 πP2 a42
of flow of liquid through them will be the same. Using Poiseuille’s equation we have Q = = ------ (i)
8l1 η 8l2 η
Where P1 and P2 are the pressure difference across the two capillaries respectively and η is the coefficient of
viscosity of the liquid flowing through the tube.
Let us consider, P is the pressure difference across the composite tube, then, we have P = P1 + P2 or, P2 = P – P1 ---
--- (ii)
πP1 a41 π(P−P1 )a42
Putting these values in equation (i) we get, =
8l1 η 8l2 η
P1 a41 Pa4 P a4
Or, = l 2 - 1l 2
l1 2 2
a4 a4 Pa4
Or, P1( l 1 + l 2 ) = l 2
1 2 2
Pa42
l2
Or, P1 = a1 a4
4 ------ (iii)
+ 2
l1 l2
Pa42 )a4
π( 1 πP 1 πP 1 πP l l
l2
From equation (i) and (iii) we get, Q = a4 a4
= 8η [ l 4 4 ]= [ ] = 8η [a14 + a24 ]-1.
1 l2 (a1 +a2 ) 8η l1 + l2
1
8l1 η( + 2 ) a4 4 1 2
l1 l2 a4 a
1 2
4 l1 l2 1 a2
Capillaries in parallel:
When two capillaries are joined in parallel, the pressure difference (= P) across them remain same but rate of flow of
liquid in two capillaries are different. If Q1 and Q2 be the volume of liquid flowing through two capillaries per second,
πPa41 πPa42
then the total volume of liquid flowing through the system per second is given as Q = Q1 + Q2 = + ==
8l1 η 8l2 η
πP a41 a42
[
8η l1
+ l2
].

R L
Example: A tube of radius R and length L is connected in series with another tube of radius 2 and length 4. If the
pressure across the two tubes taken together is P, deduce the pressure across the tubes separately.
Let, P1 and P2 be the pressure across the first and second tube respectively. Then P = P1 + P2 —--(i)
R
πP1 R4 πP2 ( )4
2
The rate of flow of liquid throughout the system is same. Therefore, = L
8Lη 8( )η
4
P2
Or, P1 = 4
------ (ii)
P 4P
Solving equation (i) and (ii) we get, P1 = 5 and P2 = .
5

Water flows in a streamline through a horizontal pipe of radius a from a vertical tank of cross-sectional area A. Find
the time when the height of the water level in the tank becomes half.
Let us consider, h be the height of water in the tank above the horizontal tube at any instant t. The pressure
difference across the end of the tube at that instant is P = hρg where ρ is the density of water.
Let, dh be the height of water falls for the small-time interval dt, then the volume of water flow through the tube in
time dt is Adh. Where A is the cross-sectional area of the tank.
A(dh)
Therefore, the rate of flow of water at that instant t is - dt . The - ve sign indicates height of water decreases with
increase of time.
πPa4 π(hρg)a4
From Poiseuille's formula, the rate of flow of water is =
8lη 8lη
A(dh) π(hρg)a4
∴- dt
= 8lη
8lηA dh
Or, dt = -
πρga4 h
H H
t 8lηA 2 dh 8lηA 8lηA H
Integrating the above equation with respect to time we get, t = ∫0 dt = - ∫ =- [log e h]H2 = - πρga4 [log e 2 −
πρga4 H h πρga4
8lηA
log e H] = πρga4 log e 2.