4.

1 Interactions
within Ecosystems
take away message

Sustainability
biotic factor + abiotic factor

water

Boxygen
soil
water
transition area
of aquatic & terrestrial
* Theres
more diversity
in ecotones
 from LINEAR chain the
more biodiversity . if one species gets removed a ,

chain will get destroyed.

linear : chain destroyed .
 Video: Wolf Niche

What is a niche

m
Niche : role an

takes on
organism
in the ecosystem
 *
* &

Resource Partitioning

&
* *
 ex .
Cane Toads
did not have
- Envasive natural predators ,

So the native

Species can't

compete wh
them
4.2 - TERRESTRIAL AND
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
4.2 - TERRESTRIAL AND
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
pp. 94-100
 Learning Objectives
1. explain how a terrestrial and an aquatic
ecosystem supports a diversity of organisms
through a variety of habitats and niches
2. identify biotic and abiotic characteristics and
explain their influence in an aquatic and a
terrestrial ecosystem in a local region
Key Terms

photoplankton
Y
zooplankton ·
◻ Complexity of ecosystems varies,
depending not only on the organisms
that live in them but also on abiotic
factors such as climate and local
geology.
Biomes of the World

(4)
>
- leaf-bearing

cone-bearing
([4E)
Brainpop: “Land Biomes”
-

grasslands

-
Rainforests

-
deserts
Xt

- tundra
Ezto(E
Define a Biome

◻ a large geographical region with a

specific climate, plants and animals that
are adapted for that region
◻ Canada has four major Biomes:
1. Tundra
2. Taiga
3. Temperate deciduous forest
4. Grassland I
Biomes of Canada
Terrestrial Ecosystems

◻ Found anywhere on earth not covered by

water
◻ Alberta has four major terrestrial
ecosystems:
* test but
not
Taiga *
on
know the
,

terms
Muskeg swampy area
Grassland
Deciduous Forest
Using page 97 of your text
◻ Identify the Abiotic and Biotic factors that
contribute to the creation of Albertan Terrestrial
Ecosystems.
Taiga (aka Boreal Forest)
Muskeg
Grassland
 *
*
most diverse
Deciduous Forest >
-
biome in Canada
& *
Aquatic Ecosystems
◻ Found in ponds, rivers, lakes, and oceans
◻ Alberta’s aquatic ecosystems are freshwater
ecosystems
Freshwater = not saltwater
 -
Lakes VS .
Pond
↓ ↓
profundal
Lake Ecosystems
too deep no
to have zone in ponds
life
plant
has profundal Zone

x plant
life
Page 100, Q: 1, 2, 3, 6, 7
4.3 – FACTORS AFFECTING
ECOSYSTEMS
4.3 – FACTORS
AFFECTING
ECOSYSTEMS
pp. 101-107
 Learning Objectives
1. identify biotic and abiotic characteristics
and explain their influence in an aquatic
and a terrestrial ecosystem in a local
region
Key Terms
Introduction

◻ each ecosystem is defined not only by the

organisms that live in it but also by the abiotic
factors that affect them.
- depend on each other

◻ biotic and abiotic factors are interdependent

◻ abiotic factors can limit the size of populations

and determine the biodiversity within an
ecosystem.
pp.101-107
Factors Affecting Terrestrial
Ecosystems
1. Soil
2. Available Water
3. Temperature
4. Sunlight
* *
1. SOIL
*

◻ Soil can be viewed as a series of layers

1. Litter (upper layer) – partially decomposed
leaves/grasses not soil yet
>
- .

2. Topsoil (under litter)– small particles of rock

mixed with decaying plant & animal matter
called humus
3. Subsoil (under topsoil) – more rock particles
with only small amounts of organic matter.
4. Bedrock (beneath soil) – composed of rocks
depends on mater
1. SOIL
 1. SOIL

Humus
shallow
very
be
decomposers
effective
are so N
 1. SOIL
◻ Quantity of each layer will affect
ecosystem productivity
Trees with deep roots vs shallow roots
↑ Alberta has lot of
a topsoil
◻ Quality of soil can also affect
productivity
pH – can be acidic, basic, or neutral
■ Coniferous trees in TAIGA have slight acidic
soil
■ Human Impact – acid rain due to SO2 and Nox
Human impact fertilizers
Nutrient levels used to
are
-

increase yield
 ex acid rain

My
-

1. SOIL Leaching

Nutrients are dissolved by

water and carried down to
the lower layers
2. Available Water

◻ All organisms depend on water to live

◻ Availability is determined by:
precipitation (rain, snow, etc.)
duration it stays in the soil rain compactoffsoil
+
run of
=

water

how much is collected beneath soil (ground

water)
 3. Temperature

◻ Organisms are able to adapt to temperature

fluctuations
i.e. Trees in Alberta can keep their leaves during
winter (coniferous trees) to better survive a short
growing season.
■ They do not have to spend time, energy & nutrients
on growing new leaves.
Two Ways to Escape Undesired
Temps
◻ Organisms can also migrate or hibernate to escape
undesired temperatures
i.e. some birds (loons) migrate to warmer climates in
the winter.
i.e. bears hibernate during winter
Wood Frog – Freezing [Link]
Brainpop: “Migration”
 4. Sunlight

◻ Sunlight varies between different

ecosystems & area

i.e. less sunlight during winter in Canada vs in

Jamaica
◻ Sunlight can also vary within the ecosystem
i.e. less sunlight during winter in Canada vs
during summer in Canada
p. 104

litter , top Soil Subsoil

,
(maybe) ,
bedrock (prob not]

precipitation , flora/plants) ground water (location

,
of bedrow

↓d precipitation

u
↓

da
and
da
Salts/mineralsdown
Ad
move mine)
steaching] -
pp.101-107 Factors Affecting Aquatic Ecosystems

1. Chemical Environment fresh /salt/minerals

2. Temperature & Sunlight

*
Water Pressure
*
3. => only
in aquatic System

4. Seasonal Variation
 1. Chemical Environment
Cake)
◻ Freshwater vs saltwater Salmon
=> can
pump in Na in fresh H 20 ,

and pump
can Salty He
out Na in

◻ Amount of dissolved substances, such as cocean

phosphorus, nitrogen, pollutants

◻ Amount of dissolved oxygen (from air or plants)
which depends on temperature, pressure (depth of
water), and amount of salt & other dissolved
substances
#
①
Cold Hzo holds more o2
*
*
2. Temperature & Sunlight
◻ Affected by depth of water as well as the seasons
Ecosystems near the surface will get more light and
warmer temperatures
 Temperature vs Oxygen Levels
◻ Increase in Temp => Decrease in Oxygen Levels
◻ Think about warm pepsi
the CO2 gas escapes faster when pop is warm
cold pop stays fizzy longer.
◻ Oxygen is required for life
Cold H2O holds & 02
bcz more dense.
to
Dense H20 moves

bottom of ocean
3. Water Pressure
◻ Water pressure increases when you move deeper
into the water body (particularly important for ocean ecosystems)
At a depth of 10 m, the pressure is roughly double
what it is at the surface
The average depth of the ocean is about 4000 m
■ That’s 400x the pressure!
Few organisms are adapted to survive at surface or
bottom of ocean
4. Seasonal Variation
◻ As water cools, it becomes more dense until it
reaches 4 degrees Celsius…then it becomes less
dense! * *

*
Winter
◻ Ice/snow covers lakes and acts as

insulators
◻ Therefore, environment underneath the ice
is very stable, even if it gets colder above
the ice.
Spring
◻ oxygen can now pass from air into water

with turbulence
◻ ice melts and water warms to 4°Celcius

…….. most dense and sinks to bottom

Summer
◻ upper level of lake (epilimnion) warms up

◻ lower level of lake (hypolimnion) remains at

low temperature
◻ middle level of lake (thermocline) drops in
temperature from warm to cold
Fall
◻ water cools and sinks to bottom; rotating
oxygen levels to the bottom of the lake
seasonal
in the
On Cont .

Temp

colder H2O move to bottom

mix of O 2
4.4 – LIMITS ON POPULATIONS &
COMMUNITIES IN ECOSYSTEMS
 environment)
- Enviornment area (territory quality of
,
1

4.4 – LIMITS ON
POPULATIONS &
COMMUNITIES
IN ECOSYSTEMS
pp. 108-111
2 Discussion
If 20 mice can become a population of 5120
mice in 6 months, what keeps the population of
mice under control?
3 Learning Objectives
1. explain how limiting factors influence
organism distribution and range
4 Key Terms
 Biotic Potential
5

◻ Biotic Potential – maximum number of offspring a

species could produce with unlimited resources
dependent on the animal (e.g., human vs mouse)
*
◻ Biotic potential is regulated by four important *

factors:
1. birth potential
2. capacity for survival
3. breeding frequency when they breed
>
-

4. length of reproductive life

 1. Birth Potential
6
 2. Capacity for Survival
7

National Geographic Documentary

 3. Breeding Frequency
8
 4. Length of Reproductive Life
9
 Limiting Factors
keep population in check
10

◻ Factors in the environment can prevent

populations from attaining their biotic potential.
◻ Any resource that is in short supply is a limiting
factor on a population.
* carryingcapacit

■
■
■
food
water
territory
*
ind
- Time #

■ presence of pollutants and other toxic chemicals

 Factors That Limit Populations
11

◻ example: fern plant

produces 50 000 spores/year
after 2 generations fern plants
would cover all of North America
 Carrying Capacity
12

◻ Populations commonly fluctuate because of an

interaction of the many biotic and abiotic limiting
factors.
◻ Ecosystem is stable when none of the populations
exceeds the carrying capacity.
 Carrying Capacity
13

◻ Carrying capacity- the maximum number of

individuals of a species that can be supported by an
ecosystem.
◻ Carrying capacity for any species is determined by
the availability of resources (food, water)
◻ Populations can exceed the carrying capacity of the
ecosystem, but not for long.
14
 Limits of Tolerance
15

◻ Carrying capacity for any species is determined by

the availability of resources (food, water, space,
etc.)
◻ Populations can exceed the carrying capacity of the
ecosystem, but not for long.
◻ Organisms can survive within a certain range of an
abiotic factor
◻ Above and below the range it cannot survive.
example: temperature
warm : lote of bacteria will thrive
 Law of the Minimum
16

◻ Justus von Liebig noted that certain substances

must be present for plants to grow
Observation:
■ If 1 substance is in low amounts but the
others are in high quantity, plant growth
was reduced
◻ Law of the minimum- states that the nutrient in the
least supply is the one that limits growth.
 Law of Tolerance
17

◻ Victor Shelford noted that too much of a factor can

harm an organism.
◻ Law of Tolerance – states that an organism can
survive within a particular range of an abiotic
factor; above and below the range it cannot survive.
18
 Population Density
19

◻ The number of organisms in

an ecosystem is important
when considering the
effects of some abiotic and
biotic factors.
◻ Population is said to be
dense when there is a large
number of organisms in a
small area. dense in population
 Factors that cause changes in populations
20

Density-independent factors – a factor in an

-mem

ecosystem that affects members of a population

regardless of population density. catastrophic
event
doesn't matter the # of organisms
> ex
- · forest fire
Density-dependent factors – a factor in an
-

ecosystem that affects members of a population

because of the population density.
& # of organisms Do matter
ex ·
parasites
21
 Population Ecology – Crash Course
22
watch when
struggling
23
 Recommended Homework Questions

Questions p. 111 #1 - 3

24
 Page 111 #1-3
1. The four factors are the biotic potential of the organism, the
25
limiting factors in the environment, the carrying capacity of
the ecosystem, and the limits of tolerance of the organism.
2. (a) The carrying capacity is the maximum number of
individuals in a population that the environment can sustain.
If the supply of food in the winter months is a limiting factor
(a factor that limits the carrying capacity), then providing
seeds during winter months would increase the number of
cedar waxwings and artificially raise the carrying capacity.
(b) The increase in the number of falcons may be due to the
banning of DDT. As well, the question suggests that the bird
watchers seeing the falcons are also the people feeding the
waxwings. The falcons are probably also attracted to the bird
feeders, to eat the nice supply of cedar waxwings.
 (a) Wolves prey on the moose population. With a declining wolf population, there will
be less predation on the moose. Assuming that the cause of the wolf decline is not
affecting the moose population, you would expect an increase in the moose
population.
26 (b) The wolf population will probably not decrease to zero because the increased moose
population provides the remaining wolves with a plentiful supply of food. Assuming
that humans are not the cause (hunting, habitat loss, introduction of a competitor or
disease, climate change), you would expect the wolf population to recover. In a
natural population, the size will fluctuate from year to year. There are many factors
that affect population size, availability of prey, water, availability of mates,
competition, disease, forest fire, and available space/habitat. Prior to Europeans
settling in North America, the wolf survived for thousands (perhaps hundreds of
thousands) of years. Eventually, all species go to extinction, but it is unlikely that
the wolf population would go extinct in a few generations without the influence of
humans.
(c) The wolf population will increase again when conditions become favourable—when
whatever conditions caused the decline have changed. For example, if the cause of
the decline was a small moose population that the wolves rely on for food, then as
soon as the moose population increases (due to less predation by smaller wolf
numbers), the wolf population will recover and start increasing in numbers.
(d) decrease in wolves → increase in moose → decrease in plant material → decrease
in moose → increase in plant material → increase in moose → increase in wolves
4.5 Changes in
the Ecosystems
 1

4.5 - CHANGES IN
ECOSYSTEMS
(pp. 113-121)
Changes in Terrestrial
Ecosystems
Sustainability
◻ Forests are an important resource they:
affect climate by recycling water and carbon dioxide
control water runoff, holding ground water, and
prevent soil erosion
act as shelter for wildlife
provide food
Forestry Practices
◻ Deforestation falls under three categories:
1. Slash-and-burn – all existing vegetation is removed
piled up and ignited in a controlled burn to provide
soil nutrients.
■ Commonly used in tropical areas to clear for agriculture
2. Clear-cutting – involves the removal of all trees in
an area.
■ In Canada this practice is followed by replanting the
dominant species.
3. Selective cutting – only certain trees are harvested
from an area, leaving the others to regenerate the
area.
Video: Energy & Wildlife - Birds
◻ [Link]
Forestry Practices
Forest Succession after Clear-Cutting
The Effects of Fire
◻ Fire means renewal
◻ Fire is a natural part of the system, it cleans up the
dead material, that has accumulated over many
years, and instigates fresh new growth.
Changes in Lake Ecosystems
Aquatic Ecosystems
◻ Aquatic ecosystems are sustained by the dynamic
equilibrium among biotic and abiotic factors.
◻ When one or more of these factors changes, it can
have profound effects on the ecosystem.
Lake Ecosystems
◻ There are two types of lakes:
1. Oligotrophic
■ Lakes are typically deep and cold.
■ Nutrient levels are low limiting size of producer
populations.
■ Limited numbers of only a few kinds of
organisms.
■ Water usually very clear.
Lake Ecosystems
2. Eutrophic
■ Lakes are generally shallow and warmer.
■ Very good supply of nutrients.
■ Many species of photosynthetic organisms.
■ Water is often murky.
Eutrophication
◻ In general oligotrophic lakes gradually become
eutrophic over time and eventually filling in and
becoming dry land.
◻ This process is call eutrophication.
Eutrophication
◻ Human sometimes accelerate eutrophication by
adding nutrients to lakes:
■ Human wastes
■ Fertilizers
■ Household and Industrial products
Water Pollution
◻ Water pollution is any physical or chemical
change in surface water or ground water that can
harm living things.
◻ Water pollution can be grouped into five
categories.
1. organic solid waste
2. disease-causing organisms
3. inorganic solids and dissolved minerals
4. thermal energy
5. organic chemicals
Eutrophication
Indicators of Water Quality
◻ Water quality is usually defined by its intended
use.
◻ There are three main indicators of water quality:
1. bacteria count
2. concentration of dissolved oxygen
3. BOD - **don’t need to know this!!
1. Bacteria
• Detection of disease-causing bacteria is both difficult
and expensive.
• An indirect way of discovering bacteria is to look for
coliform bacteria.
■ Coliform bacteria – type of bacteria that occurs naturally in the
intestines of humans and other animals.
• Presence of coliform bacteria indicates that animal
wastes are polluting the water.
• Many dangerous diseases-causing bacteria are
transmitted in waste.
2. Dissolved Oxygen
• From the table from your notes a wide range of
pollutants cause oxygen levels to fall.
• Test for oxygen levels.
■ Chemical test – the solutions changes colour when they
react with oxygen.
■ Biological – examine the living things found in the
water.
• Healthy trout indicate high level
• Carp and catfish indicate low level
• Complete absence of fish indicates that oxygen levels are
to low (but could also mean toxins in the water killed the
fish)
3. Biological oxygen demand (BOD)
• The amount of dissolved oxygen needed by decomposers
to completely break down the organic matter in a water
sample at 20°C over five days.
• The BOD indicates the amount of available organic
matter in a water sample.
• It is important to note that, as the number of organisms
increase and biological oxygen demand increases, more
organisms use oxygen from the water.
• This causes the level of dissolved oxygen to decrease.
Thermal Pollution
◻ As a result of thermal pollution summer like
conditions can be maintained thought the year.
◻ As a result many organism that would be dormant
continue to thrive through the winter producing
more detritus.
◻ Additional organic matter at the bottom of a lake
rapidly increases eutrophication.
Source of Pollution
◻ Point source of pollution
Enter the water from a single source.

◻ Nonpoint source of pollution

Pollution from widespread sources.

■ E.g. Farmland (runoff) and roads.

 Review Items for Friday’s Quiz
◻ which biome is mostly coniferous forest?
◻ which biome has least biodiversity?
◻ why is sewage in an aquatic ecosystem problematic?
◻ what is the sequence of soil layers?
◻ what are the characteristics of oligotrophic and
eutrophic lakes?
◻ what is the importance of fall turnover?
◻ what are the 3 layers of lake water? Where are they?
Review (cont’d)
◻ what are the ecosystem zones of a lake?
◻ what is a species? Population? Community?
◻ what is a niche?
5.1 Classification of Organisms
Intro to Evolution
Video: Black Widow
CLASSIFICATION
OF ORGANISMS
(pp. 134-140)
 Learning Outcomes
B1.5k: (Acceptable Standard)
◻ State that taxonomy categorizes organisms based on
similar characteristics
◻ State the order of categories in the taxonomic systems
general Specific
i.e., domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
◻ Describe that the hierarchy of categories is organized from
general to specific characteristics
E.g., General: Kingdom Plantae all perform photosynthesis
E.g, Specific: Order Pinales all have cones (e.g., pine cones)
◻ Distinguish between the 6 Kingdoms based on mode of
* know how

nutrition (i.e., heterothroph, autotroph, decomposer) to name

 Learning Outcomes
B1.5k: (Acceptable Standard)
◻ Describe the need for a common taxonomic system and
binomial nomenclature
◻ State that binomial nomenclature identifies organisms
based on a two-category classification (i.e., Genus
species)
◻ Identify that physical characteristics are used to classify
organisms at the Genus species level
◻ Select the most closely related and least closely related
organisms from a given list based on the taxonomic
system
 Learning Outcomes
B1.5k: (Standard of Excellence)
◻ Classify organisms into taxonomic categories based on
given characteristics
◻ Predict the likely kingdom classification based on given
information
-body forms
◻ Identify limitations of exclusive use of morphological

characteristics in classifying organisms

◻ Assess the relationship between two species based on

taxonomic characteristics
 Binomial Nomenclature OI E

◻ Living things are named and classified using an

internationally agreed system called Binomial Nomenclature
◻ Carl Linnaeus created this 2 name
system to identify organisms
◻ Why?
Biologists throughout the world have a
universal language for communicating
about living things
Allows for clear communication
◻ A few names for species to the right:
Löwenzahn , paardebloem, dandelion,
diente de león, pissenlit, tarassaco.
 Binomial Nomenclature
◻ All living organisms have a Latin name consisting of a
genus and a species name
◻ Genus
Group of species that share characteristics
E.g., genus Macropus
■ stands for “big foot”
Common Name is
■ A genus of kangaroos that all have big hind
Red Kangaroo
legs
◻ Species Macropus rufus
Genus species
Name that is specific to 1 organism name name

Often the name refers to a specific trait

E.g., species rufus means “red”
 Binomial Nomenclature
◻ Binomial = 2 names Nomenclature = naming rules
◻ Rules scientists must follow: House Cat
Genus name starts with a capital (upper case) Genus = Felis
letter. Species = sylvestris
Species name starts with a lowercase letter.
____________________
Felis Sylvestris
Genus name is always written before the species
Canadian Lynx
name. Genus = Lynx
The complete name, i.e. genus and species, Species = canadensis
should be typed in italics , or underlined when
M

I
handwritten. indigenous
After using the full Genus species name once in Lynx canadensis Canada
____________________
a paper, you can then use the shorthand version. American Beaver
First Letter Genus name + species name Genus = Castor
■ E.g, Homo sapiens >
H. sapiens Species = canadensis
Often genus and species names are written using Latin or
classical Greek because they are unchanging languages Castor
canadensis
 Taxonomy
Brainpop Video: Classification

◻ The categorization (grouping) of organisms based on similar

characteristics
◻ Taxon = group [Taxa = plural for Taxon]
◻ Hierarchy of Taxa Domain is largest & general
Species is most specific, 1 type of organism
Hierarchy of Taxonomy
◻ Classification recognizes eight levels in
the hierarchy of taxa:
Domain Acronyms:

Kingdom Daring Domain

Phylum King Kingdom
Phillip phylum
Class Came class
Order Over order
For family
Family Good genus
Soup species
Genus
Species
Plant or Animal?
What are some distinguishing characteristics that could help you tell the difference?

-plant sanimal sanimal

plant animal animal

 Why Classify Organisms?
◻ Over 10 million species alive today
◻ Helps in identifying and understanding newly found
organisms
◻ Allows the prediction of characteristics shared by
species within a group (e.g., birds have feathers)
* *
◻ Shows evolutionary history of species

The more taxa shared by 2 species, the more closely related

they are
Bat v S
. . Butterfly
mammal insect
More taxa shared = more closely related

◻ Which 2 are more closely related?

◻ Which is least closely related to the others?
More taxa shared = more closely related

◻ Which 2 are more closely related?

◻ Which is least closely related to the others?
More taxa shared = more closely related

◻ Which 2 are more closely related?

bound
E membrane

>
- animals

= has Spinal cord

mammals

2
carnivores

cats

leo
Brainpop: “Six Kingdoms”
(Phylogeny)
Phylogeny
◻ Phylogeny is the history of evolution of a
species or group of species (taxon)
◻ Relationships are shown in a diagram called a
phylogenic tree
Starts from oldest (most ancestral) form and
branches off to descendants.
Phylogenetic Tree of Humans &
Primates
Phylogenetic Tree of the 3 Domains
Phylogenetic Tree of the 6 Kingdoms
Distinguish between Kingdoms based
the mode of nutrition
◻ Modes of Nutrition include:
Autotroph Heterotroph Decomposer
make own depend on

food others
(eat autotrophes)

Kingdom Mode of Nutrition

Eubacteria heterotrophic or autotrophic

Archaebacteria heterotrophs or autotrophic

Protists autotrophic or heterotrophic

Fungi decomposer / heterotroph

Plants autotrophic

Animals heterotrophic
Phylogenetic Tree for some
Vertebrates
There are Limitations of Using Morphological
Characteristics in Classifying Organisms

◻ morphological characteristic = structures of an animal

eg: large feet, small ears, wings, flippers, white fur
Taxon Egyptian Fruit Bat Monarch
Butterfly
Domain Eukaryota Eukaryota
Kingdom Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata (spinal chord Arthropoda
Class Mammalia Insecta
Order Chiroptera Lepidoptera
Family Pteropodidae Nyphalidae
Genus Rousettus Danaus
Species aegyptiacus plexippus
Dichotomous Keys
◻ A series of paired opposing statements which guide
the user to the classification of an unknown organism
Dichotomy = splitting into two
◻ -
Dichotomous key field guides rely on visible features
◻ Can be yes/no questions
* same thing as other one
5.2 – EVIDENCE OF A CHANGING
EARTH
 1

5.2 – EVIDENCE OF A
CHANGING EARTH
(pp. 140-143)
 DO NOW
What is the scientific name
of the tuatara? Write it
using rules of binomial
nomenclature
What is the scientific
Sphenodon punctatus name of the tuatara? Write
it using rules of binomial
nomenclature
 Loading…

3
4 Learning Outcomes
(1) summarize and describe lines of evidence
to support the evolution of modern species
from ancestral forms (e.g., fossil record,
earth’s history, biogeography)
 What is Evolution?
5 Video: Clearly Stated

• Evolution is the process by which populations of

living things change over a series of generations.
• Evolution does not refer to the change or
Loading…
development of an individual organism
• Evolution occurs within a population of
organisms
 What is Natural Selection
6
ADAPTATION AND CHANGE IN
POPULATIONS
7

• Adaptation
• a change in characteristic of an organism
which increases its chances of survival.
• Variation in a trait may give adaptive
advantage to a species when the
environmental conditions change
• E.g., increase in snowfall due to climate
change will select for snowshoe hare that
have white fur
 Evidence for Evolution
8

• Fossil Record
• Earth’s History
• Biogeography
• Comparative Anatomy
• Homologous Structures
• Analogous Structures
• Embryology
• Biochemistry (DNA & Proteins)
• Artificial Selection
 Evidence of Evolution: Fossils
9

• Fossils: the remains,

impressions, and traces
of organisms from past
geological ages
 What do Fossils Tell us?
10

(1) A lot of different species lived on Earth at

various times in the past.
• Today’s species have not been around for very long (less
than 1 million years).
• ~99% of the species that have lived are now extinct
(2) Complexity of life increases from Past to
Present.
• Bacteria cells precede animal cells
• Invertebrate animals (e.g., worms) precede
vertebrates
(3) Living species and their closely matched fossil
Complexity Increases Over Time

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11
 Archaeopteryx Fossil (ar-kee-op-
12
triks)
• Shows the transition of birds from prehistoric
reptiles
• Feathers can be seen in fossil
• Scales evolved into feathers
Five phases of
Gaps in the Fossil Record?
fossilization:
13

Death Deposition Preservation Uplift/Exposure

• Most dead organisms do not

fossilize
• Becoming a fossil requires rare
conditions to occur Erosion
• Only hard parts of organisms form
 Fossil Evidence of Horse
14 Evolution
• Fossil record of horses is well documented
• Shows cumulative changes over 50 million years
• Horse legs develop to allow faster running by
fusing and modifying leg and toe bones
 Evidence of Evolution: Earth’s
15 History

Newest Layer

Oldest Layer
 Earth’s History (cont’d)
16

• Sir Charles Lyell (1830)

• geological change is slow
and gradual and has been
going on over vast expanses
of time.
• This supports the idea that
the Earth is much older than
previously thought (~6000
years)
• Supports the time required for
evolution to take place
 Age of Fossils in Sedimentary
17 Rock
• strata = layers in sedimentary rock
• scientists use the layers to place fossils in

chronological order (determine relative ages)

• older = bottom

• newer = top

• like your laundry pile

• cannot get the precise

age of a fossil
 Evidence of Evolution: Biogeography
18

• Biogeography is the study of the geographic

distribution of life on Earth
• Biogeography provides evidence of shifting
land masses throughout Earth’s history
• 225 mya Pangaea (continents connected)
• Fossils of the same species have been found
in different continents suggesting the
continents were once joined
 Biogeography
19

• Fossils younger than 150 million years old are

not found on different continents suggesting
they evolved after the breakup.
• Evidence from Biogeography suggests that
different species evolved independently in
isolated parts of the world
 Biogeography Example:
20 Marsupials
• Marsupial mammals • Placental mammals
(external pouch for (baby develops
babies) are dominant completely in womb)
species in Australia & are dominant species
New Zealand “everywhere” else

Australia & New Zealand have been separated from other

continents for over 65 million years (time when mammals
began taking over the world)
 Biogeography: Marsupials
21

• Similar
environmental
pressures will
cause different
species to
develop similar
characteristics
• Original
Marsupial
came to
Australia from
5.3 - EVOLUTION FROM
BIOLOGY
 1

parts that serve no purpose

T ex .
tail bones of humans

5.3 – EVIDENCE OF
-

EVOLUTION FROM
BIOLOGY
(pp. 144-149)
2
Learning Outcomes
1. summarize and describe lines of evidence to
support the evolution of modern species
from ancestral forms
 Evidence for Evolution
3 Video: Clearly Stated Evidence

◻ Fossil Record
◻ Earth’s History
◻ Biogeography
◻ Comparative Anatomy
◻ Homologous Structures
◻ Analogous Structures
◻ Embryology
◻ Biochemistry (DNA & Proteins)
◻ Artificial Selection
 Evidence of Evolution:
4
Comparative Anatomy
◻ Scientists look for evidence of evolution and
relationships between organisms by comparing their
anatomy
◻ Anatomy = the structures of the body
E.g., bones in the arm, ear bones, body shape, eyes, etc.
◻ Similarities can evolve separately (e.g., analogous
structures)
Ves
 Evolution :
* Divergent
Evidence of Evolution: Similar structure ,

3
diff function
HOMOLOGOUS

5
Homologous Structures convergent
is opposite
evolution

◻ Having a similar structure, but different function

Example: human hand & whale flipper
◻ Evidence of a common ancestor
◻ Formed from DIVERGENT EVOLUTION
development of different forms or structures in
related species due to adaptation to different
environments.
 Homologous Structures:

Pentadactyl limbs
- Limbs with five digits
- Found in amphibians,
reptiles, birds, & mammals

- Suggests they all had a

common ancestor

- Results from Divergent

Evolution

- Over time the species

diverged to be better
adapted to their respective
environments

6
 Homologous Structures:
Embryology
7 (Link)

• the study of organism in the early stages of

development
• Homologous structures between embryos show
evolutionary relationships
• Closer the embryo = closer common ancestor
 Embryology

8
 Divergent Evolution
9 Video: Darwins Finches

◻ Species that share a common ancestor become

more distinct due to different environmental
selection pressure
◻ Over time this will lead to new species forming
in different
Example: Darwin’s Finches ate different foods and live
◻
>
-
to their
they
areas so had to adapt

surroundings
10
 Divergent Evolution

11
 Vestigial Structure
12

◻ Anatomical structures that serve no purpose

Snakes and whales have vestigial hip and leg
bones
◻ Suggests they
evolved from
ancestors that
walked on four
limbs
 Evidence of Evolution: Videos Analagous Structures
Flying Fish

13
Analogous Structures Flying Lizard

◻ Analogous structures
are similar in function
and appearance but
came from different
ancestors.

◻ Convergent Evolution
 Analogous Structures
14

Illustrates CONVERGENT EVOLUTION

■ development of similar forms from unrelated species
due to adaptation to similar environment
■ Ex: the torpedo shape of dolphins and sharks.
Over time, the two began to look more and more
alike.
 Analogous Structures:
15
Convergent Evolution
◻ Due to similar environmental selection pressure
similar structures can evolve in organisms that are
not closely related
◻ Example: White fur in Arctic animals
White = good camouflage in snow
 Evidence of Evolution:
16
Biochemical Evidence
Analysis of DNA or Proteins can be used to show
evolutionary relationships

The more similarities in DNA the more closely related

2 species are
■ E.g., Chimpanzees & Humans have ~94% identical DNA
■ E.g., Humans & Bananas have ~60% identical DNA

The more similarities in proteins the more closely

related 2 species are
 Biochemical Evidence:
Comparing Proteins
17

◻ More Differences = More Distantly Related

 Evidence of Evolution:
Artificial Selection
18 Video: Artificial Selection

◻ Plant and animal

breeding, in which
people breed
individuals with
desired
characteristics in
order to get
offspring with
those same
characteristics.
19
20
5.4 - THE MAKING OF A THEORY
— ACCOUNTING FOR THE
EVIDENCE
5.4 – THE MAKING OF A
THEORY—
ACCOUNTING FOR THE
EVIDENCE
(pp. 150-152)
 Learning Outcomes
(1) compare Lamarckian and Darwinian
explanations of evolutionary change
 What is a Theory?
• A scientific theory is a model that accounts for all of the
known scientific evidence as completely as possible.
• It is “best guess” as to how things in nature got to be the way
they are
• Loading…
Based on observations of the natural world
• Must be modified or thrown out if additional information
gathered does not support the theory
• Must be testable
• Must allow us to make predictions

Video: TedEd: What’s the difference between a scientific law and theory? (5:11)
 Two Theories on Evolution:
4 Lamarck vs. Darwin
 Lamarck >
- individual changing within

wrong
lifespan
,
bcz its not individual

• Key Factor: Environment

• Theory of Need: -
aquired characteristics
(not hediarotory
• Organisms change because they need to change. ex piano playing skill
.

For example: Because the environment changed, the ancestor of the snake
Loading…
•
needed to squeeze through narrow spaces so it stretched its body and began
to crawl.
• I guess his legs got scraped off!!

• Theory of Use and Disuse:

• Use-remains strong. Disuse-weakens and disappears.
• For example snakes legs.

• Theory of Passing on Acquired Traits:

• Physical Traits acquired in lifetime could be passed on
6
Lamarck’s Theory Tested
•Weismann tried to prove
his theory by cutting off the
tails of mice and breeding
them to see if their offspring
were born with tails.
in their GENES
wERE born with tails , bC2 its
they

We study his theory because:

- An example of how a theory
can be tested and replaced
with a new theory

7
 What would happen if Lamarck was
correct?

8
 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
9 Video: Natural Selection

• 1859-Book called The Origin of Species

explained a theory of how species developed
• Darwin explained that evolution occurs in five
steps:
Acuired traits
• Overproduction of offspring
• Struggle for existence
• Heritable Variation in a population
• Selection Pressure Survival of the Fittest
>
-
natural selection

• Origin of New Species

10
 Darwin’s Famous Journey
11

• Darwin sailed around

the world as a
naturalist on the
HMS Beagle at the
Loading…
age of 22. On his trip,
he was especially
surprised by the
unusual species along
the coast of South
America (the
Galapagos Islands)
• Of particular interest
to Darwin was the 14
 varieties of finch that

Darwin’s Finches
12

• 13 species of finches with

modifications to their beaks
• Beak shape was an adaptation
suited for eating food found in it’s
geographic location
also their claws
 Darwin’s Finches
13

#• Divergent Evolution *
come from diff ancestors

• Finches on different
islands evolved to adapt
to particular food
sources
• Beaks were different
sizes and shapes to
become specialized for
food found on each
island
 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
• Overproduction of offspring
• Struggle for existence
• Heritable Variation in a population
• Selection Pressure Natural
Selection
• Origin of New Species
Example of Natural Selection
 1) Overproduction
16

• The number of offspring produced by a

species is more than can actually survive.
• Example:
• A single fern produces 50 million spores per year.

• If each of these spores would thrive and survive,

in only two generations ferns would cover North
America.

• Frogs lay hundreds of eggs but

only a few survive to adulthood
 2) Struggle For Existence
17

• Every living organism faces a constant struggle to

survive.
• If an individual survives to an age where it can
reproduce then it is normally well adapted
• Only a fraction of offspring will survive due to fierce
competition for

• food
• shelter
• mates
• hiding from predators
• surviving disease
 3) Variation within populations
18

• Individuals of a given species vary.

• Only identical twins are the same.
3) Variation (cont’d)
• Causes of Variation in a population include:
• 1) Mutations most are not good

• Random Changes in the DNA sequence that can be passed

down to offspring
• 2) Production of Sex Cells
Asexual
organisms
• E.g., Egg & Sperm
• Each sex cell only contains half of the DNA of the parent
• 3) Sexual Reproduction
• Each parent contributes half the DNA of their offspring
 4) Natural Selection
20

• Nature selects which organisms will survive based on

traits that give them an advantage in the environment.
• Increases the frequency of characteristics that make
individuals better adapted
• Decreases the frequency of characteristics that reduce
the individuals success
&
white hair
-
white snow=
camoflange
 5) Origin of New Species
21

• The organisms that survive and pass on traits to

offspring.
• This leads to Speciation

• Occurs by the accumulation of inherited variations, over

numerous generations and is complete when
reproductive isolation occurs.
• “Reproductive isolation” has occurred when two
organisms can no longer reproduce fertile offspring.
5.5 - SOURCES OF
INHERITED VARIATION
 1

5.5 – SOURCES OF
INHERITED VARIATION
(pp. 153-156)
2
Learning Outcomes
1. explain that variability in a species results from
heritable mutations and that some mutations may
have selective advantage(s)
2. discuss the significance of sexual reproduction to
individual variation in populations and to the
process of evolution
 Darwin’s Unanswered Questions
3

1) Where does variation come from?

chromosome ,
genes

2) How are beneficial traits passed on to

offspring?

◻ Genes and their role in inheritance was not

understood until the 1930s.
 2 Sources of Inherited Variation
4

1. Mutations >
- beneficial
not

2. Sexual Reproduction

◻ Inherited Variation – Differences between

individuals in a population that can be passed on to
their offspring
 Mutations in DNA (Brainpop “Genetic Mutations)

◻ DNA is composed of long sequences of 4

molecules that form codes for specific inherited
traits
Like a Blueprint for an individual
◻ Mutations – random changes in the DNA code due
to errors in copying or exposure to damaging
conditions (chemicals, radiation)

I UV radiation could damage

Cells & DNA
 3 Types of Mutations
6

1. Neutral Mutation – has no effect on fitness

2. Harmful Mutation – reduces fitness nature goes against
>
-

3. Beneficial Mutation – provides a selective

advantage thereby increasing fitness selected for of
>
-

nature

◻ Fitness = reproductive success

◻ Most mutations are neutral or harmful
◻ Mutations occur randomly
 Genetic Mutations = Variation
7

◻ 8 Super Mutations in Humans

8
 Sexual Reproduction & Variability
9

◻ Asexual Reproduction >

- unicellular

Production of offspring from a single parent

Offspring inherit genes of that parent only
■ Very little inherited variability
■ Mutations may still occur
◻ Sexual Reproduction >
- multicellular

Production of offspring by the union of sex cells from

two different parents
Offspring inherit a combination of genes from both
parents
3
23 chromosomes
from mom
■ Large amount of Variability 4) chromosomes
from dad in total
23 chromosomes
10 3 Reasons for Variability in Sexual Reproduction

1. Two copies of each gene. Each parent

gives an offspring 1 of each gene.
2. Offspring inherits random assortment
of genes from parent
3. Different mates will result in different
combinations of genes
 1) Two copies of each gene
11

◻ Both parents contribute one copy

of each gene to the offspring
◻ Offspring has a different
combinations of genes from
either parent
Unique set of traits
 2) Offspring inherits random assortment of
genes from parent
12

◻ The greater the # of genes a species has, the larger

the # of combinations and the greater variability of
the species as a whole

completely
random =>

Cunique)
 3) Different mates will result in
different combinations of genes
13

◻ Each combination of parents will give rise to

different combinations of genes and traits in the
next generation
14
 1

5.6 – SPECIATION & species

forming
new

EVOLUTION
(pp. 157-161)
2
Learning Outcomes
1. summarize and describe lines of evidence to support
the evolution of modern species from ancestral
forms
2. explain speciation and the conditions required for
this process

m
3. describe modern evolutionary theories, i.e.,
punctuated equilibrium versus gradualism
 Speciation
3

◻ Formation of new species

Species
◎

◉Apopulation of individuals who are

reproductively isolated
Not capable of breeding with
individuals of other species under
natural conditions
-

produce fertile offspring

 What is a Species?
4

◻ A group of organisms that are capable of

interbreeding and exchanging genes
Able to have babies
Babies are able to have more babies 3 fertile

I can’t have
babies, so I’m
not a species?
 Possible Causes of Speciation
5

◻ Speciation is the formation of a new species

through reproductive isolation
◻ This isolation could happen in two ways:
Behavioral isolation: when two populations are
capable of interbreeding, but have
differences in courtship rituals Acting differently
Geographic isolation: (allopatric speciation) two
populations are separated by geographic
barriers such as rivers or mountains going to other
places
 Behavioral Isolation Video: Birds of Paradise
6 Video: Michael Jackson
Allopatric Speciation (Geographic Isolation)
geographic
7 Video: Allopatric
Speciation
 Allopatric Speciation (Geographic
isolation)
8
9 Allopatric Speciation (Geographic Isolation)

1. Physical Barrier separates population into 2

groups
2. Natural Selection works on the 2 groups
individually
3. Groups become so different that they can no
longer mate and have fertile offspring
 Hybrids are infertile = not a species
10 Video: Hybrids Liger
 Horse + Donkey = Mule

11
 Two Rates of Evolution
12

~
best evidence
Of evolution
:
fossil records

Slow
 Speciation by Gradualism
13

◻ Speciation occurs slowly by

accumulation of inherited
mutations
◻

◻ What evidence brings this

theory into doubt?
fossil
◻ records
 Theory of Punctuated
14
Equilibrium
◻ Species undergo long
periods with no change
No new species are created
but frequency of variant
changes due to environmental
pressures
At certain times in Earth’s
history, mass extinctions have
taken place, followed by rapid
speciation
Extinctions make new niches
available for new species
 The fossil record shows that speciation is not
always gradual.
There have been periods of mass extinction followed
by rapid speciation.

15
 Mass extinction creates many available
niches Therefore rapid speciation can
_______.
occur to fill those ______.
niches

Explanation for why

intermediate fossils
are rare

16
 Question: Which Model is Each
Picture Demonstrating?
17

3 gradualism

punchuation

gradualism
18