Introduction to Postcolonial Criticism

Postcolonial criticism emerged as a powerful theoretical force in literary studies in the

early 1990s, though the cultural analysis of colonialism predates this, having been central to
anticolonial political movements since the end of World War II. It provides a unique lens for
understanding human oppression and the complex interplay between culture and power.

The Nature and Scope of Postcolonial Criticism

Postcolonial criticism’s primary utility lies in its capacity to reveal the deep and complex
connections among diverse areas of human experience, demonstrating that categories like
the psychological, ideological, social, political, intellectual, and aesthetic are inseparable in
lived reality.

●​ Intersectional Framework: It provides a structure for comparing and contrasting

various forms of human oppression, offering a framework for theories like Marxism,
Feminism, Queer Theory, and African American Theory.
●​ Definition of Scope: Postcolonial criticism defines formerly colonized peoples
broadly as any population that has been subjected to the political domination of
another population.
○​ This broad definition allows critics to analyze literature from groups such as
African Americans, aboriginal Australians, and the formerly colonized
populations of India.
●​ Focus on Global Issues: While focusing on global issues and comparisons,
postcolonial criticism acknowledges the need for specific populations (like African
American critics) to develop their own critical tradition focused on their unique history
and literature.

Historical Context of Colonialism

Postcolonial studies are rooted in the history of European imperial expansion, which began
in the late fifteenth century.

●​ Imperial Powers: The main colonizing powers were Spain, France, England,
Portugal, and the Netherlands, competing for the extraction of natural and human
resources globally.
●​ British Imperial Hegemony: The nineteenth century saw Britain rise as the largest
imperial power. By the turn of the twentieth century, the British Empire controlled
one-quarter of the earth's surface, including vast holdings in India, Australia, Canada,
Africa, and the Middle East.
●​ Decolonization: British colonial dominance lasted until World War II. The major
wave of decolonization began with India's independence in 1947, with most other
colonies following suit, leading to the loss of almost all British colonial holdings by
1980.
The Dual Function: Subject Matter and Theoretical
Framework
In literary studies, postcolonial criticism serves two distinct yet related functions:

1. As a Subject Matter
●​ It analyzes literature produced by cultures that developed in response to colonial
domination, from the initial contact to the present day.
●​ This body of work was historically categorized as "Commonwealth literature" until
the 1980s.
●​ It includes literature written by both colonizers and, predominantly, by colonized
and formerly colonized peoples.

2. As a Theoretical Framework (Primary Concern)

●​ It aims to understand the operations—politically, socially, culturally, and
psychologically—of colonialist and anticolonialist ideologies.
●​ It analyzes the ideological forces that:
○​ Pressured the colonized to internalize the colonizers' values.
○​ Promoted the resistance of colonized peoples against their oppressors, a
resistance as old as colonialism itself.
●​ Crucially, because colonialist and anticolonialist ideologies can be present in any
text, the theoretical framework can be applied to any literary work, regardless of
whether it is officially classified as "postcolonial."

These notes delve into the creation of Postcolonial Identity through the lens of Colonialist
Ideology and its psychological and cultural aftermath. I will organize, expand, and formalize
these concepts.

Postcolonial Identity and Colonialist

Discourse
Postcolonial identity is shaped by the residual effects of colonial domination, forming a
complex psychological and social space where native and imposed cultures merge and
conflict.

I. The Legacy of Cultural Colonization

Decolonization often meant only the removal of military and governmental officials. What
remained was a deeply ingrained cultural colonization, a pervasive inculcation of British
systems and values.

●​ Linguistic Residue: The widespread use of English in government, education, and

commerce in formerly colonized nations—often alongside local languages—is a key
indicator of this residual effect.
 ●​ Cultural Antagonism and Merger: Postcolonial cultures are characterized by a
dynamic merger of and antagonism between the indigenous, precolonial culture
and the imposed British culture. This blend makes it difficult to separate the two into
discrete entities today.
●​ Psychological Inheritance: This process left ex-colonials with a psychological
inheritance characterized by a negative self-image and alienation from their own
indigenous cultures, which were actively denigrated or forbidden, leading to the loss
of precolonial culture.

II. Colonialist Ideology (Colonialist Discourse)

Postcolonial identity is a direct reaction to colonialist ideology, which was expressed
through colonialist discourse—the language used to justify and perpetuate colonial rule.

A. The Assumption of Superiority

Colonialist ideology was founded on the colonizers' inherent assumption of their own
Anglo-European superiority.

●​ Metropolitan vs. Savage: Colonizers defined their culture as metropolitan

(civilized, sophisticated) and, by contrast, defined native peoples as savage,
backward, and undeveloped. Their advanced technology was falsely equated with
a superiority of their entire culture.
●​ Eurocentrism: This attitude—the practice of using European culture as the
standard against which all other cultures are negatively contrasted—is known as
Eurocentrism.
○​ Example: Universalism: The long-standing practice in literary studies of
judging works based on "universal" characters and themes, where "universal"
was implicitly defined by whether the text resembled European literature,
ideas, ideals, and experience.
○​ Example: World Classification: The Eurocentric terms First World, Second
World, Third World, and Fourth World organize history based on European
colonial conquest, privileging that history over earlier or parallel world
systems.

B. Othering and Representation

The core ideological act was othering: the practice of judging all who are different as less
than fully human.

●​ Self vs. Other: The colonizers saw themselves as the proper "self"—the
embodiment of what a human being should be—and native peoples were relegated
to the status of "other," inferior, and pushed to the margins of the world.
●​ Forms of the Other:
○​ Demonic Other: The "savage" perceived as evil, morally corrupt, and inferior.
○​ Exotic Other: The "savage" perceived as possessing a "primitive" beauty
or nobility due to a closeness to nature, yet still remaining fundamentally
other and less than fully human.
 ●​ Orientalism (Edward Said): A specific, politically motivated form of othering where
Western nations create a positive national self-definition by projecting all their
undesired, negative characteristics (e.g., deceit, perversion) onto Eastern nations
(the "oriental"). The "oriental" is an invention of the Westused to justify aggression
and assert moral superiority.

III. The Psychological Trauma of Colonial Identity

Colonialist ideology, instilled through British schools, led to deep-seated psychological
fragmentation and identity crises among colonized peoples.

●​ Colonial Subject: A colonized person who internalized British superiority and,

believing in their own inferiority, did not resist colonial subjugation.
●​ Mimicry: The desire of colonial subjects to be accepted by the colonizing culture,
leading them to imitate their colonizers in dress, speech, behavior, and lifestyle. This
often reflected shame concerning their own native culture.
●​ Double Consciousness / Double Vision: The resulting psychological state where a
colonial subject's perception is divided between two antagonistic cultures: that of
the colonizer and that of the indigenous community.
●​ Unhomeliness: An unstable sense of self often heightened by forced migration
(e.g., into cities for employment or enslavement). Unhomeliness is the feeling of
being a psychological refugee—not at home in oneself—due to a cultural identity
crisis. It is not mere homelessness but a trauma of cultural displacement.

IV. The Dilemma of Cultural Reclamation

Post-independence challenges include rejecting colonialist ideology and reclaiming the
precolonial past, tasks complicated by language barriers, cultural change, and the
persistent colonial mindset.

A. The Language Debate

●​ Indigenous Language Use: Some writers (like Kenyan writer Ngugi wa Thiong'o)
write in their native languages to actively reject colonial influence, but this faces the
economic difficulty of survival in the English-dominated global publishing industry.
●​ English Language Use: Other writers (like Nigerian writer Chinua Achebe) choose
English, viewing it as a valuable common language for internally diverse nations
and as a necessary tool for engagement in global politics and economics.

B. The Imperative for Cultural Self-Affirmation

 ●​ The Problem of Loss: Colonial domination resulted in the massive loss of
precolonial culture, making reclamation difficult.
●​ Nativism/Nationalism: Many ex-colonials feel compelled to rediscover and affirm
their precolonial civilizations—especially since colonizers often claimed these
cultures were barbaric or non-existent. This emphasis on indigenous culture, often
accompanied by the desire to eliminate Western influence, is called nativism or
nationalism.

C. Hybridity and Cultural Evolution

●​ Cultural Change: Many theorists argue that culture is never static; even without
colonization, ancient cultures would have changed (e.g., Celtic culture was changed
by the Romans).
●​ Hybridity/Syncretism: Postcolonial identity is therefore argued to be a dynamic,
constantly evolving hybrid (or syncretism) of native and colonial cultures. This view
asserts that hybridity is a productive, exciting, positive force that encourages
ex-colonials to embrace their blended cultural reality.

V. Double Oppression: Postcolonial Women

The critical theory acknowledges that postcolonial women suffer a double oppression from
both colonialist ideology and patriarchal ideology.

Oppression Target/Source Effect

Type

Colonialist Devalues them based on race and Results in exclusion from political
Ideology cultural ancestry. power and economic opportunity.

Patriarchal Devalues them based on sex (within Results in massive economic

Ideology both colonial and indigenous disparity.
cultures).

Concrete Statistics (Anne McClintock): In the world, women do two-thirds

of the world's work, yet earn 10 percent of the world's income, and own
less than 1 percent of the world's property.

This patriarchal pattern is reinforced by international aid, which disproportionately provides

money, machinery, and training to men. This is particularly stark in Africa, where women
farmers produce 65–80 percent of all agricultural produce, but often do not own the
land they work and are bypassed by development projects.
Postcolonial Debates and Critical
Agendas
Postcolonial criticism is not a monolithic field; it is defined by key debates over its scope and
contemporary relevance, particularly regarding which literatures it includes and how it
addresses modern forms of oppression.

I. Defining the Postcolonial Scope

A. Invader Colonies vs. White Settler Colonies
There is a general consensus to include literature from invader colonies (those established
among nonwhite peoples by force, like India, Africa, and the West Indies). The inclusion of
white settler colonies(Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Southern Africa) is highly
debated.

Argument for Exclusion (Reserve the Argument for Inclusion (Anticolonial

term for Third and Fourth Worlds) Resistance)

Racial Difference: White settler cultures Subtle Double Consciousness: White

share race, language, and culture with colonial subjects experience a subtler, less
Britain, viewing it as the "mother country." racially demarcated double consciousness
and cultural resistance to British cultural
obliteration.

Differential Treatment: Settler colonies Focus on Resistance: The core concept of

were granted Dominion status postcolonial criticism is anticolonial
(autonomy) without armed struggle and resistance. Ignoring the Second World's
often participated in the subjugation of literature ignores valuable insights into this
indigenous peoples themselves. complex resistance.

Race and Economics: Including settler Literary Authenticity: Critics argue one
cultures ignores the difference race cannot uncritically assume all literature from
plays in maintaining economic oppression nonwhite colonized peoples is literature of
for Third and Fourth World peoples today. resistance, while ignoring the anticolonialist
literature of the Second World.
II. Colonialism in the Contemporary Era
A major political debate concerns the implication of the term "postcolonial" itself—that
colonialism is a thing of the past—which critics argue is inaccurate given the existence of
new forms of domination.

A. Neocolonialism
Neocolonialism refers to the political, economic, and cultural subjugation of vulnerable
nations today by powerful international corporations and Western powers (e.g., the United
States, Germany, Japan).

●​ Economic Exploitation: It involves exploiting the cheap labor available in

developing countries, often damaging local businesses, cultural traditions, and
ecological well-being.
●​ Political Support: This corporate enterprise is maintained through puppet regimes
(local rulers paid to support corporate interests) and covert military intervention.

B. Cultural Imperialism
A direct result of economic domination, cultural imperialism is the "takeover" of one culture
by another.

●​ Definition: The food, clothing, customs, recreation, and values of the economically
dominant culture (e.g., American cultural imperialism) increasingly replace those
of the vulnerable culture, leading to the latter becoming a form of imitation (e.g.,
American fast food and consumerism squeezing out indigenous traditions globally).

III. Critiquing Postcolonial Criticism Itself

The politics of the postcolonial critical agenda have also been subject to scrutiny.

A. The Elite Critic vs. the Subaltern

●​ The "Academic Ruling Class": Most postcolonial critics, even those from formerly
colonized nations, belong to an intellectual elite (often educated at European
universities and living abroad).
●​ The Subaltern: Critics worry that this elite class has little in common with the
subalterns—the majority of poor, exploited ex-colonial peoples (people of inferior
status) who are the object of their concern.

B. Western Theory and Cultural Identity

Postcolonial criticism's focus on the instability and hybridity of cultural identity is largely
rooted in First World theories like poststructuralism and deconstruction.

●​ The Instability Problem: Nations struggling to define a cohesive cultural identity

may mistrust these destabilizing Western theories, having suffered Western
domination for so long. They may seek a unified, stable identity, which deconstruction
inherently defines as a fragmented illusion.
C. The Risk of Literary Recolonization
A final concern is that postcolonial criticism will become just another way to read the existing
Western literary canon, rather than a method that promotes the works of Third and Fourth
World writers.

●​ Counter-Evidence: This fear seems unlikely, given the international success and
Nobel Prizes awarded to postcolonial writers like Wole Soyinka (Nigeria, 1986),
Nadine Gordimer (South Africa, 1991), Derek Walcott (St. Lucia, 1992), and J. M.
Coetzee (South Africa, 2003).
●​ The Threat: The underlying apprehension is that postcolonial literature will be
"colonized"—that is, interpreted only according to the Eurocentrism that dominates
literary education and criticism globally.

IV. Common Topics in Postcolonial Literary

Interpretation
Regardless of where critics place themselves in these debates, postcolonial literature is
often interpreted through common, overlapping themes:

●​ Initial Encounter and Disruption: The colonizers' arrival and the immediate
upheaval of indigenous culture.
●​ Othering and Colonial Oppression: The dehumanization of the native population.
●​ Mimicry: The colonized subject's attempt to imitate the colonizer.
●​ Exile: The experience of being an "outsider" or foreign wanderer.
●​ Post-Independence Dynamics: Exuberance followed by disillusionment.
●​ Identity Struggle: Themes of alienation, unhomeliness, double consciousness,
and hybridity.
●​ Reclamation: The need for continuity with a precolonial past and self-definition
of the political future.
Early Thinkers and Key Theories

Edward Said (Orientalism) and Frantz Fanon represent the early phase of postcolonial
theory.

●​ Edward Said introduced the concept of Orientalism (1978), arguing that the West
(“Occident”) has historically constructed the East (“Orient”) through stereotypes,
representing it as exotic, irrational, and inferior. This discourse served to justify
colonial domination. Said’s analysis, however, is often seen as one-directional,
focusing mainly on Western representations of the East.
●​ Frantz Fanon, through works like Black Skin, White Masks (1952) and The
Wretched of the Earth (1961), explored the psychological effects of colonization
using psychoanalysis. He showed how colonized people internalize feelings of
inferiority and alienation, developing a “double consciousness” (a split identity
shaped by both native and colonial cultures). His ideas connect closely to
segregation and the psychological trauma of colonial oppression.

Postcolonialism and Postmodernism: Spivak and Derrida

In the postmodern phase, postcolonial theory absorbed deconstruction (Jacques

Derrida) and critical approaches to language.

●​ Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, one of the most influential postcolonial theorists,

combined Derridean deconstruction with Marxism and feminism.
●​ Derrida argued that binary oppositions (e.g., civilized/savage, man/woman,
colonizer/colonized) structure Western thought but are unstable, because language
itself is not fixed—meanings constantly shift.
●​ Spivak applied this to colonial discourse, suggesting that since colonial identities
are constructed (“constructed”), they can also be deconstructed.
●​ Through this, she challenged the Western colonial gaze, promoting a perspective
beyond the rigid East/West dichotomy.

While Said’s work was more cultural and political, Spivak gave postcolonialism
philosophical and academic legitimacy, particularly through her essay “Can the
Subaltern Speak?” (1988), which discusses how marginalized voices are silenced by both
colonial and intellectual elites.
Homi K. Bhabha and Contemporary Postcolonial Thought

Homi Bhabha is one of the most significant figures in contemporary postcolonial theory.

●​ His key concepts include hybridity, ambivalence, and the third space.
●​ Bhabha argues that colonial identity is never pure—it is hybrid, formed through
constant cultural negotiation between colonizer and colonized.
●​ The third space represents this in-between zone where new identities emerge,
beyond binary categories.
●​ Unlike Fanon, Bhabha’s work is more theoretical and less overtly political, which
explains why it has gained greater acceptance in Western academia.

Wide Sargasso Sea (1966) – Jean Rhys

●​ Genre: Postcolonial, postmodern, and feminist novel
●​ Type: Prequel to Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre
●​ Major themes: Class, gender, race, ethnicity, identity, madness

The Tragedy of Creole Identity

At the heart of Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea lies the tragic identity crisis of Antoinette
Cosway, a white Creole woman born in the Caribbean. Through her story, Rhys exposes
what it means to be Creole in a postcolonial world.

1. Dual Exclusion and In-betweenness

Antoinette belongs fully to neither community:

●​ The local Black population despises her as the descendant of slave owners, calling
her derogatory names such as “white cockroach.”
●​ The English colonizers see her as degenerate and “corrupted” by tropical life.​
This creates a state of in-betweenness, reflecting the liminality (existence between
two worlds) of Creole identity—belonging nowhere.

2. Colonial Logic and Madness

Her husband, Mr. Rochester, interprets Antoinette’s emotional instability as proof of her
Creole inferiority.​
Colonial ideology equates the tropics and Creole culture with excess, disorder, and moral
decay.​
Thus, madness becomes a metaphor for how colonial power pathologizes difference.

3. Erasure of Identity through Renaming

Rochester’s act of renaming Antoinette as “Bertha” is not just personal—it is an act of
colonial domination.​
By giving her a new name, he erases her Creole identity, rewrites her past, and imposes
his own patriarchal and imperial control.​
Antoinette’s eventual breakdown and confinement in England symbolize the psychological
imprisonment of colonized subjects within Western systems of power.

Creole Identity and Colonial Hierarchy

The term “Creole” refers to white Europeans born in colonial lands, particularly the
Caribbean.​
In colonial hierarchy, they were seen as inferior to Europeans but superior to Black
people—a liminal status that bred cultural alienation.​
In English literature, the Creole identity is rarely represented; in Jane Eyre, Bertha Mason’s
madness is linked to her Creole background, implying racial and moral degeneration.​
Rhys rewrites this bias by giving voice to the silenced Creole woman, showing how
colonial and patriarchal systems drive her to madness.

🌴 Wide Sargasso Sea: A Postcolonial and Feminist

Analysis
Jean Rhys's Wide Sargasso Sea (1966) is considered a foundational text in both
postcolonial literature and feminist criticism. It functions as a prequel to Charlotte
Brontë's Jane Eyre, giving a voice, history, and identity to the silenced figure of Bertha
Mason, Mr. Rochester's mad wife.

📌 Core Narrative and Protagonist

The protagonist is Antoinette Cosway, a white Creole woman born and raised in the
Caribbean (primarily Jamaica). She is the descendant of former slave owners and suffers
from the pain of exclusion after the abolition of slavery, marginalized by both the local Black
population and the newly arrived English. This state of in-betweenness renders her identity
fragile.

The novel traces Antoinette's traumatic post-slavery childhood, her disappointing young
adulthood, and the beginning of her marriage to Mr. Rochester, who marries her for her
fortune but quickly grows to despise her due to cultural differences, gossip, and mistrust.

👑 The Tragedy of Creole Identity

The novel centers on the tragic identity crisis of Antoinette, a white Creole whose ancestry
is European but whose birthplace and culture are Caribbean.

1. Creole: A State of In-Betweenness and Degeneration

●​ Definition: Creole refers to people of European descent born in the colonies.
●​ Colonial Perception: They were considered less respectable than white
Europeans from the mainland and often thought to be "savage" or "degenerated"
due to being raised in the colonial, especially tropical, environment.
●​ Dual Exclusion: Antoinette belongs nowhere:
○​ Excluded by the Locals: The local Black population is hostile, viewing her
as an heir to slave ownership, and insults her (e.g., "white cockroach").
○​ Excluded by the English: The English consider her "Creolized," "foreign,"
and "spoiled" by the tropical setting, refusing to accept her as one of their
own.

2. The Colonial Gaze and Madness

●​ Linking Race to Illness: Mr. Rochester directly connects Antoinette's strange
behavior and the family history of madness to her Creole background. The colonial
mindset views the tropics and Creole culture as "uncontrolled," "excessive," and
inherently "degenerate."
●​ Monsterization: This serves the colonial purpose of simplifying the colonized identity
into mere madness or moral decay. Wide Sargasso Sea explores the actual causes
of her eventual madness, challenging Brontë’s portrayal in Jane Eyre, where Bertha's
insanity is simply attributed to her problematic Creole lineage.

📜 Postcolonial and Feminist Significance

Rhys offers a powerful critique by foregrounding a woman silenced and monsterized by the
colonial discourse.
1. The Erasure of Identity: Naming as a Colonial Act
●​ The Act of Re-naming: Rochester renames Antoinette "Bertha" before bringing her
to England.
●​ Symbolic Violence: This is not just a nickname; it is a colonial act of symbolic
violence. It erasesher Creole identity, denies her Caribbean past, and subjects her
to English control and definition. Antoinette’s desperate struggle is against this
erasure of self.

2. Intersecting Oppressions: Gender, Class, and Ethnicity

●​ The novel demonstrates how Antoinette is a victim of multiple, intersecting systems:
○​ Colonialism: She is trapped by the English colonial power that dictates her
worth.
○​ Patriarchy: Her marriage is based on economic exploitation (Rochester
marries her for her fortune), treating her as an object.
○​ Sexual Exploitation: The sexual exploitation and humiliation she suffers
are compounded by the patriarchal system, which links her perceived
uncontrolled sexuality and madness to silence and confine her.

3. Fragmentation and Confinement

The tragic outcome is Antoinette's loss of sanity as she is torn from her tropical "paradise" in
the Caribbean and confined to the cold, alien setting of England—a victim of both the
colonial logic and patriarchal oppression.

Conclusion: Wide Sargasso Sea is a powerful examination of how the Creole identity is
fragmented by the combined pressures of colonial and patriarchal systems, resulting in the
destruction of the individual spirit and identity.

For Your Exam: Focus on analyzing problems and issues (e.g., gender identity,
class/gender/sex/ethnicity issues) within the text, rather than merely identifying theorists.
Ensure you reference the key elements of postcolonial literature present in the novel.