lJNIT

Learning: Concept, Nature and

Factors Influencing it
Introduction
,
From childhood through adolescence to adulthood, you must have perceived many changes
in yourself. Your skills, abilities and attitudes must have particularly undergone changes.
Have you ever wondered how this has been possible? Well, many psychologists have
. focused their research on finding the answer to this question and attributed it to the
phenomenon of learning. In this unit you will study how learning actually contributes to
- the development of our 'self' and 'personality', you will be able to understand its nature
ancl concept, appreciate how its unfolds as a developmental process and perceive how it
differs from related concepts Iike maturation, reflex action, imprinting and'performance.
An attempt will also be made to facilitate your comprehension of the various types of
learning and the personal and environmental factors which influence it. Their implications
for the teaching -learning process will also be discussed.

Learning outcomes
After working through this unit, you will be able to:

• conceptua Iize and understand the concept of learn ing;

•• differentiate it from maturation, reflex action ,instinctive behaviour and performance;

.• understand and explain the various types of learning;

\
• identify and analyse the different factors affecting learning.

I Concept of learning
\ In order to better understand the concept of learning, let us look at these examples given
below:
\
An individual feels anxious when he sees a doctor with a needle and syringe.

\ Most of us can cook, ride a bicycle, swim, play tennis or badminton.

Long after learning mathematics in school, as adults we can make budgets with
ease.

\ Based on the physics which we learnt as children we can regulate the consumption
of electricity in our homes.
\
When we see a visually challenged person trying to cross the road, we immediately
go to help him.
\
The examples clearly show us that eversince our birth We have been continually learning
\ new skills, gaining fresh information and developing beliefs and attitudes. We
were unable to perform most of our present behavior when we were young. We have
\ learnt these behaviors en route to growth and they have now become a part of our
personality. Most of the behaviors that we manifest are a result of learning. Learning
\ begins at infancy and continues throughout life. A newborn who first cries when
uncomfortable, learns that crying would soon be followed-by his/her mother's care and
\ attention. The child learns from his family, neighborhood . teachers, peers, etc. In this
Towards Understanding way learning continues under formal as well as informal conditions. An individual
the Processes of Teaching
and Learning in IIigher
acquires knowledge, beliefs, attitudes skills etc. from his family, school, community and
Education society at large and develops into a unique self. All these learnt behaviors become a
part of our personality. We are not only acculturated and socialized but we also become
capable of enriching our culture. Learning is a complex mix of intelligence, motivation,
psychological factors and even brain chemistry. Its processes and consequences
I
can be as simple as touching a hot store and 'learning' notto touch it again, or as complex
as struggling to understand the basic principles of the theory of relativity and its application
to the space technology programme. Learning is a process of continual adaptation to
I
the environment and assimilation and accommodation of new information and
knowledge to fit in with pre-existing knowledge structures.

Although there is no single definition oflearning, most psychologists and educators would
agree that learning is a process by which behavior is either modified or changed
through experience or training. Learning is thus a relatively permanent change in
response potentiality which occurs as a function of reinforced practice. This definition
also allows the inclusion of the phenomenon oflatent learning and incidental learning, .
in which changes are not immediately observable and reflects the truism that learning is
really a hypothetical construct recognizable solely through measurable changes in behavior
i.e. performance. Learning may thus be understood as essentially an active process
which allows the individual to interact with the environment and gain enrichment of
experience. It can also be defined as improvement in behavior, in that with time we
usually become more proficient at whatever it is that we are learning.

Learning involves various dimensions of psychological and mental activities. For

effective learning to take place, among various psychological factors, motivation and
I
learning
physiological
ability are important factors besides psychological factors, there are
basis oflearning too. Since organisms participate in activities which ensure
I
learning on an operational basis, there are many physical planes through which an organism
operates. In the physical plane, learning is highly dependent upon the receptors, the,
participation of afferent nerves which carry the sense impressions and to the brain and
I
the entire nervous system which then provides meaning and interpretation.

Learning also includes motor processes, habits, ideational acquisitions which involve
I
information and affective elements that are emotional in content. For instance, manual
skills which are predominantly motor in character are relatively simpler to acquire. On I
the affective side, however we have a broad array of acquired likes, disl ikes, biases and
prejudices. At a still higher level of complexity, there are value systems, frames of
reference and styles of life - all learnt and acquired through a rewarding interaction
I
with the environment, constantly indulging in modification and structuring and restructuring
behavior to help us adjust and adapt to our surroundings and obtain mastery over it.
Effective learning, like growth, expands the possibilities of adaptive behgvior.

Learning typically includes a wide variety of changes in behavior. It may involve adjustment
with others or it may involve learning the use of skills required for the day-to-day activities
or inculcation of healthy habits for survival. It may also help in fostering the right attitude
or in controlling one's emotions. From the political party that we vote for, to taking stock
of our thoughts, to the vocabulary we use, are all the by-products of learning. This makes
it most significantly relevant process for an individual's positive growth and adjustment
with his environment. I
Difference between learning and related concepts I
From what has been discussed so far, it is evident that learning is change in behaviour.
But, can all changes in behaviour attributed to learning? For instance, accidentally stepping
. on a sharp object leads to a quick withdrawal of the foot. Is this quick withdrawal of the
I
foot - a learned behaviour? No, this behaviour is spontaneous, automatic - it is reflexive
I
 and not a behavioural change due to learning, but an instinctive reaction. So also, closing Learning: Concept.
Nature and Factors
one's eyes when out in a dust storm or in sharp sunlight occur automatically. These are Influencing it
examples of 'reflex actions'.

The behaviorial of pattern an individual depends upon his biological constitution. Also,
what he is capable of learning is determined by his biological make-up. Living beings
inherit a few fixed patterns of (behaviour) responses. For example, soon after birth, the
ducklingfollows its mother - a process called imprinting. This is not a learnt behaviour
since duckl ings don't have any such prior experience. This behaviour is encoded in their
genetic material. and they have a natural instinct to perform this behaviour. Thus this
behaviour is actually instinctive behaviour. You must have observed that all the birds
do not necessarily know / follow this behaviours thereby indicating that certain behaviour
are found only in certain species:- they are species-specific behaviour. Similarly, there
are certain phylogenetic functions i.e. responses informally found in a given species.
These responses are common to a race. For example flying in birds and crawl ing, walking
in human beings. These behaviours appear normally, at about the same time and in the
same order in spite of differences in environmental stimulation. These behaviors are
largely due to physical development or maturation and less due to learning. Maturation
is a developmental process, within which a person from time to time manifests different
. traits for which the blue prints have been carried in his cells from the time of his
conception. At a particular age, every normal chi Id starts crawl ing, walking or talking. He
doesn't have to put in much conscious effort to learn these behavior as' compared to
learning how to swim or ride a bicycle. Thus maturation is a process of growth and
development which takes place regularly in the individual without special conditions of
stimulation such as training and practice. Learning, in contrast, is change of behavior
which is brought about by the stimulation present in the environment, outside the individual
. and involves training and practice. It is an enduring change in a living individual which
is not heralded by his genetic inheritance. It always refers to some systematic change in
behavior or behaviourial disposition that occurs as a consequence of experience in some
specified situation. It therefore excludes purely physical processes like growth and the
behavior changes that occur with maturation. Although much learning occurs in tandem
with growth, any changes in behavior or in brain structure or functioning that come about
purely due to biological maturation are not considered to be learning. Changes which
take place in connection with growth, development and maturation stimulate learning and
influence the form it will take, but they are not the same as learning itself.

It is also important to differentiate between learning and reflex action. A reflex action is
an unlearnt stimulus response relationship. This must be clear from the examples about
withdrawing one's foot and closing the eyes which have already been discussed. Reflex
actions are natural reactions in us which enable us to deal with any anomalies or dangers
which' 'ireaten our physical sense of well being. They enable an individual to defend
himself. Later on many reflex actions become learnt behaviors and are also generalized
to different situations.

There are many behavior changes brought about by factor like fatigue, drugs, illness or
emotional situations which are purely transitory· in nature and cannot be equated with
learning. These changes, like physical changes in material objects are quite unstable. As
and when the factor causing a change is removed or restored, the behavior may revert to
its original form. For example, if you are tired one evening, your capacity to study will be
low. The next day however, if there is no evidence offatigue, you will be able to' study
well. Similarly, if you have a headache or are feeling dizzy, you will not be able to
.concentrate on what you are trying to read. As you get better however, you will find that
.' xou can read with full concentration.

Learning must also be differentiated from performance. Performance refers to what

an organism actually does i.e. its behavior which can always be observed and even
measured. Learning however is not behavior or performance since it specifies what the
Towards Understanding organism is capable of doing while performance specifies what the organism actually
the Processes of Teaching
and Learning in Higher does. Learning can never be studied directly. We can only make theoretical inferences
Education about learning based on performance. Everything we learn is retained in some form in
our behavior, even though it may be forgotten or never acted out (exceptions are brain
injury etc.). The absence of a particular behavior or its non-performance does not mean
that an individual has un learnt it.

The relationship between learning and performance may be illustrated as follows:

Learning ------.~ Performance of the learning

~ ~
New learning

Figure 1 Relationship between learning and performance

Self-assessment
1. Give two examples each to show how learning differs from maturation and.
reflex actions.
2. Reflect back on your life and identify at least five capabilities in yourself
which you can attribute to maturation. State why they qualify as exemplars
of maturation and not learning.
3. Make a list of at least three behaviors which were initially instinctive or
reflex actions in you, but later became learnt behavioss.

Types of learning
You have already understood that we learn a wide variety of skills, attitudes and
competencies, which greatly enhance our efficiency and our effectiveness in our
environment. Some of these are learnt directly, some indirectly, some through experience,
some through conscious effort, some through using thinking and reasoning and others
through our feelings. Some skills are also learnt through optimizing on our neuromuscular
abilities and co-ordination. Let us take a look at some of the different types of learning
which we engage in.

Cognitive learning
When learning refers to gaining of information, memorization, ability to perceive
relationships between different ideas, explaining phenomena in different ways etc., this
type of learning refers to cognitive learning or intellectual learning. It covers most of
what is taught in the school and college. This does not however mean that cognitive
learning takes place under formal conditions only. Even while doing routine work or
household work we discover so many things. In the beginning we imitate ourelders,
whi le learning new tasks. We tend to do the routine work the way they do it without even
trying to reason it out. Gradually, as we gain more and more insight and understanding of
the whole process, we are able to comprehend why certain work is done in a particular
manner. Many a times, we may even suggest new or better methods of doing those very
tasks. We usually try out those methods and evaluate them. Cognitive learning enables
us to function at high levels of complexity and efficiency. In the life of college students,
cognitive learning occupies a centre-stage position.

, Psychomotor learning
Ridinga bicycle, stitching, playing badminton etc are examples oflearning which involve
muscular co-ordination and physical skills, like eye hand co-ordination while hitting a
 ball, or a shuttle cock. Learning of skills that have large physical [Link] components is Learning: Concept,
Nature and Factors
referred to as psychomotor learning. 'Gross motor skills' include balance, left versus Influencing it
right directionality, and general co-ordination. 'Fine motor skills' are specific and
-differentiated physical skills like eye hand co-ordination required for writing or stitching
and doing precision skills.

Affective learning
Fear, love, passion and dislikes illustrate learning involving emotions and feelings. This
type of learning is called Affective learning. Affective learning is largely an outcome of
the socio-cultural and emotional atmosphere surrounding us. We learn both positive and
negative emotions. The situation and circumstances usually determine how we feel and
what emotion gets learnt by us.

Concomitant learning
Very often, one learns unconsciously from his environment certain attitudes, values,
likes, dislikes, for some people or things. Children acquire values, attitudes and sentiments
from the behaviour of their parents and other members of the family. If the mother is soft
spoken, loving, kind and just, the child is likely to imbibe these values. Similarly, if the
father is well mannered, honest, diligent, helpful, children will unconsciously learn these
behaviours. Many of the mannerisms of a person are a result of the unconscious learning.
Students learn a great deal of behaviour unconsciously. Though the primary concern of a
teacher is to teach subject matter and students consciously learns it, unconsciously they
pick up values, attitudes etc. from their teachers' behaviour as well. Learning of this kind
is known as collateral or concomitant learning. Behaviour .related to moral values,
nationalism, truthfulness etc., are largely an outcome of concomitant learning. Concomitant
learning plays a very important role in personality development.

Discrimination learning
Gagne, put discrimination learning just before concept learning in his hierarchical
classification of types of learning. In the learning of concepts, the focus is on one new
concept at a time, while in the learning of discriminations, the focus is on two or more
similar or related concepts to finely outline the differences. If the concepts have been
learnt already, comparison and discrimination can follow easily. Each of the similar or
related concepts for discrimination could be taken one by one, developed and
generalised, then considered side by side with the others through comparison and
differentiation. Thus, the process of discrimination learning is essentially that of concept
learning. Generalisation of each concept is attained though attribute analysis, selection,
and comparison with a set of appropriate exemplars. Discrimination is attained through
comparison of such sets for different, similar or related concepts. In this process the vital
differences are also generalised.

Principles learning
Principles learning; yet another type of learning is similar to concept learning. While
exemplars are used in the latter, situations containing relationships, are used in the
former. While common features are identified and generalized in the latter, common
relationships .are noted and generalised in the former. Further, verification and
confirmation are not only useful, but also necessary, in both. Just as sub-concepts may be
put together or synthesized into a complex concept, simple principles can be interrelated
and integrated to yield higher order principles. Concepts, specially the defined concepts,
have implications for behaviour, action and practice. Principles too, have impl ications for
such things. Further, principles have applicability and are used in problem solving, and
have a scope for transfer to parallel situations. Once principles or rules are adequately
understood, it should be possible to derive their implications and applications, and use
them deductively in solving problems involving concepts and relationships, represented in
the principles concerned. .
Towards Understanding
the Processes of Teaching Self-assessment
and Learning in Higher
Education Identify the type of learning involved in the following activities:

4. Changing one s tone of voice when talking to persons of different age groups.

J5. Attending a yoga class and learning how to perform asanas.

6. Doing badly in a math exam because of math anxiety.

7. Selecting cotton garments over silk ones in summer.

Factors affecting learning

Having understood the concept oflearning and the different types of learning, let us now
try to see why individuals differ with respect to what they learn, how they learn and why
they learn. Study the examples given below and try to see which factor(s) are influencing
learning. .

• Charu, an average student gets good marks in English and Hindi but always scores
poorly in math. Her parents and teachers feel that somehow she is not working hard
enough in math.

• Ravi has planned out a regular routine for his studies, play, watching TV. etc. covering
the whole day. He sticks to his schedule and thus scores very well.

• Sangita is a very autocratic and cynical teacher. She is very impatient with her
learners and treats them badly, while Rohita another teacher, who teaches the
same class, is considerate and kind, respects her learners and helps each 'student to
develop to his/her best. Students enjoy Rohita's classes and do much better in her
subject.

The above given real life situations must have enabled you to understand some of the
factors which affect learning, like aptitude, positive experiences, good study habits,
personality traits, etc. As has already been discussed in the previous chapters, most of the
behaviors that we show today are actually manifestations of our learning. Often we learn
by interacting with different environments thereby making the environment as important
a factor as the individual dealing with the environment.

In this conceptualization, we may describe learning as:

I Learning: f (Environment x Learner)

In other words, learning is influenced by both personal and environmental factors.

Learner related factors are personal factors which differ from person to person and
learner to learner. The important personal factors will now be discussed, one by one.

Maturation
A one year old cannot be made to write and a three months old child cannot walk. Unless
the learner has 'matured' optimally, he cannot learn. In order for learning to take place,
physical, intellectual, socio-ernotional maturation is most essential. Today, in our ever- Learning: Concept.
Nature and Factors
advancing society, we burden our students with too many things, without giving credence
Influencing it
to their level of maturation. Also individual variations in the process of maturation should be
acknowledged and appropriately dealt with. For instance, puberty may begin as early as
ten years for some girls but for others it may not happen till they are fourteen or fifteen. For
some boys, height gain happens in class IX, for others in class Xl. In the case of college
students in their readiness for fulfilling the various developmental challenges confronting
them, which had been discussed elaborately in unit one, maturation plays a role.

Motivation

Ashok, is very fond of playing cricket and he is very good at it too. He is the captain of
his college team. He spends long hours playing or watching cricket and never gets tired
or bored. We may say that he is intrinsically motivated i.e. he derives internal satisfaction
from the game. Intrinsic motivation is closely related to one's need for selffulfi IIment, and
achievement. These needs impel us to become better by learning more, interacting with
our environment and developing our self. Learning is most effective when there is intrinsic
motivation - a desire to learn from within, which finds satisfaction in the achievement
itself and does not bother about other factors. In young adults, this is a more potent force
than motivation based on rewards that are extrinsic.

When the desire to learn is governed by external factors, like earning a reward or
avoiding pain (for eg., you take a new job because it pays more), it is only a means to an
end and therefore, not as effective as that which sustains from internal joy. However, it
may be emphasized here that in the case of college students, extrinsic motivation also
plays a significant role in giving strength and direction to learning. For example, the desire
for winning a prestigious trophy for dramatics or art, often induce students to work very
hard and strive to obtain success. In such cases, the social prestige that results from
winning the trophy is also considered important, apart from inner happiness that may be
experienced.

In the field of studies too, the same pattern can be observed. In fact, sometimes students
are motivated by a combination of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, since both
provide energy, recognition and satisfaction. Studying hard for the joy it gives and so that
one will get a university position of merit is a typical example of this.

Psychological needs

Very closely related to our motivational pattern, are our psychological needs These exist
in the form of certain wants or desires that are unique to us. They are important,
since they influence what we want to learn and how much time, energy and effort
we are willing to devote to it. At any given point of time, there are a large number of
psychological needs in us. In young adults, these include, love, belongingness, social
prestige, esteem, recognition, affiliation, self-expression, creativity, aesthetics, and higher
cognitive quests. Although all these needs co-exist simultaneously, there is always a
dominant pattern or preponderance of some over the other. The dominant needs at any
given point of time wi 11determine what the individual is likely to learn and do. For example,
if a student enjoys se ience and spends a 11her ti me and energy on it, you can be sure that
she has a strong higher cognitive need for it. Maybe it is also giving her a sense of
creative fulfillment and is an outlet for self-exploration and expression. For the student
talented in art, painting becomes a means of self expression, creativity-and an avenue for
the fulfillment of beauty and aesthetic needs. For the President of the Students Union, the
need for esteem, social, prestige and recognition may be the predominant needs. Analysing
your students' needs, may thus be a very worthwhile pursuit, for it will provide many
explanations about the learning processes and quality which they reflect.
Towards Understanding Self-concept
the Processes of Teaching
and Learning in Higher
Education As individual's grow and develop, they pick up ideas about themselves - their talents,
potentialities, weaknesses and strengths. This network of ideas about oneselfformulates
what is known as our self-concept. Self-concept is a very important issue, since our
behavior, choices, interpersonal relationships and world view are affected by it and that is
why it is occuring again in almost at! the units. An individual's beliefs about himself always
colour his actions. For example, a student who likes mathematics, feels confident about it
(positive self-concept) will learn faster, seeks opportunities for doing it, and tries to excel
in it furthermore. On the contrary, tries a student who dislikes math, will try to avoid it,
and may eventually end up hating it and performing poorly in the subject (negative self-
concept). Self-concept is very important in matters of learning because it influences
individual differences in learners, in their, learning orientations, cognitive styles and the
self learning strategies which they use.

In young adults, self-concept is influenced by self image, self esteem and the specific
worth which they assign to themselves in different areas like academics, spefts, public
speaking, friendship, etc. Those individuals who are high on their academic self-concept
. usually tend to study very hard, assigning a lot of importance to their performance and
achievement. For those whose self image derives its strength from public speaking skills,
participation in debates, dramatics and discussion forums becomes a passion and vice
versa. Thus self-concept becomes an important personal factor that influences the course
and intensity of learning and involvement. A strong positive self-concept almost always
induces effective learning whereas a weak self-concept or a poor self-image lead to
ineffective learning. To promote the development of a healthy self-concept in students, it
is important that they have success experiences and positive associations with what they
are [Link] relationship between self-concept, learning and performance is
diagrammatically presented in the figure given below:

Individual Self-concept

Performance

Figure 2 Relationship between self-concep! •.learning and p~rformance

Level of aspiration
This refers to the extent to which an individual wishes to strive to achieve. It emanates
from the targets, goals and ambitions that individuals construct for themselves. If we
set our level of aspiration fairly high, then correspondingly, the degree of effort we put
in and how effectively we are likely to learn, will be influenced by it. An individual who
 Learning: Concept,
wants to excel in a particular field would have a high level of aspiration in it and would
Nature and Factors
thus try to learn effectively to fulfill his aspiration. You [Link] have come across many Influencing it
students wanting to excel in studies, games, etc. and noticed how they set targets for
themselves and then work towards the fulfillment of those targets.

Goals

Our goals, whether short term or long term, determine what we learn and how we learn
it. For example, to pass a test in history, one may rote memorise the facts asan immediate
short term goal, but to pursue history as an academician, one may need to carefully
study the facts and analyze them - a long term goal. Goals, motives, needs and
aspirations are all highly inter-related and connected. Goals in a sense provide the
anchor for the expected outcome, while needs, motives and aspirations energise the
process of their formulation. If one wants to become a doctor, for example, then
studying medicine would be his/her goal, wanting to study in a good medical
college would be his/her aspiration and serving others might be his/her motive.
Some goals which individuals set up for themselves may often be very abstract and
esoteric such as wanting to be a good human being, an enlightened citizen, etc. In
such a case, an almost lifelong learning process is set off. Trying to understand an
individual's goals is thus of immense relevance in making sense of the nature and quality
of his/her learning.

Interests

Interests are a major factor in guiding learning. The more interested one is in a particular
area, the more he is motivated to learn in that area. You must have come across some
learners, who are very average in their studies, but can nevertheless present a very
complex analysis of a cricket match. They even substantiate their views with precise
facts and details. They also enjoy hearing and watching panel discussions and interviews
centred around cricket. Have you, ever wondered, why this happens? Well, it is mainly
because they have a great deal of interest in cricket. Interests are activities or pastimes
which we voluntarily engage in, because we enjoy them. The enjoyment derived from
. them gives us a sense of fulfillment. The areas of interest among young adults may
vary from academics, to sports, to literary, to cultural, to recreational activities. Avid
chess players are found to be deeply interested in the game. Voracious readers usually
have strong literary and academic interests. Individuals who enjoy watching films, dance,
plays etc. are likely to be high on cultural interests. It is thus very important to know
\ the pattern of interests which individuals have for, it is a rich source of knowing them
and understanding the nature of their learning.

\ Study and work habits

Study and work habits determine to a very large extent, how effective, learning would
\ be. Proper or-ganization of the material to be learnt, judiciously timed breaks between
learning, careful analysis and planning of the content to be learned and preparing a
time table are some of the facilitative work habits which bring about efficiency in
our performance and make us better learners. Also using appropriate learning
strategies to study such as rhymes, mnemonics, short forms, anagrams flow charts,
highlighting, underlining, note making, etc. greatly effectivise learning.

Study the figure given below. You will realize that learning is influenced not only
by personal or learner related factors, as has been already discussed, but is also
contingent upon teacher-related, task-related and environment-related factors.
IS

I
Towards Understanding
the Processes of Teaching Learner Related Teacher Related Task Related Environment
and Learning in Higher Related
Education
Maturation Teacher's Methods used Physical
(Readiness to Personality environment
learn) Nature of Task (climate/comfort)
Motivation Communication , Teaching aids Socio-emotional
" used climate of the
Self-concept Leadership class
Style of teacher Structure of
Goals the discipline
Levels of Interpersonal
Aspiration relationships of
the teacher with
Interests the learners.
Attention Teaching styles
Study habits

Figure 3 Factors affecting [Link]

Let us now examine them one by one.

Teacher-related factors
You already know that these factors have been dealt with in Block 11. In any learning
situation, the role of the teacher is extremely significant. The leadership style adopted
by him/her in terms of whether it is authoritarian, democratic, benevolent or indifferent
greatly influences how the students will respond and involve themselves in the leaming
tasks. The freedom to communicate, express one's views, explore alternatives and
engage in productive discussions also has a great bearing on the classroom processes
and learning outcomes, The relationship which teachers have with their students also
sets the tone and climate of the classroom. When students perceive the relationship as
open, friendly and facilitative, they feel more comfortable and better motivated to
learn. In controlled, hierarchical relations, an element offear is usually induced which de-
motivates learners. In such, situations learning is based on the 'avoidance of
unpleasantness' principle, rather than learning out of a sense of joyful exploration or
inquiry orientation. The evaluative comments which teachers make either verbally or
in writing also have a great bearing on students learning. They have a power to motivate
and encourage or stifle and discourage, They carry signals and messages of learners'
capabilities and can serve as a great source of inspiration and challenge on the one hand,
but complete disinterest on the other.

Very closely allied to the feedback provided by teachers, is their expectations from
students related to learning. There is nothing mystical about how a teacher's expectations
work. If students strive to live up to teachers' expectations, it will be not only because the
expectations are reasonable, but because an interpersonal relationship in which teachers
are viewed as persons who are basically trustworthy, friendly, warm and sure of themselves.
Expectations are powerful, self-perpetuating attitudes for students as wen as teachers
because they guide both perceptions and behavior. When we expect that something will
happen in a particular way the likelihood of that 'something' happening is far greater than
if we didn't have such an expectation.

Apart from expectations, there are many other characteristics related to teachers which
influence their learners and the teaching -learning process. The most significant among
these are modelling, enthusiasm, caring and positive expectations. Teachers attitudes
and beliefs about teaching and learning are communicated through modelling.
Student motivation and learning are virtually impossible if teachers model distaste or lack Learning: Concept,
Nature and Factors
of interest in the topics they teach. In contrast, even the most mundane topics can be Influencing it
made more palatable, if teachers' model interest in them. Further, the enthusiasm of a
teacher communicates genuine interest. Research indicates that teachers who present
information enthusiastically, increase learners' self-efficacy, attributions of effort and
ability, self confidence and achievement. The caring attitude of a teacher and how
he/she communicates it, is another important factor, Caring refers to a teacher's ability
to emphathize with and invest in the protection· and development of her learners.
Caring may be communicated through showing respect and politeness, valuing individuality
ability, helping with personal problems and giving extra time.

As far as positive teacher expectations are concerned, they are important in that they
communicate that all students can learn to their fullest potential.

Let us now understand briefly, the task-related factors.

Task-related factors
These refer largely to the transactional skills and abilities of the teacher. It is well known
that students of any age are liable to lose motivation and interest in learning when meaning,
purpose and hope are absent from a curriculum and its transactional process. It is in this
that the skills and task interpretation of a teacher are most important. Just as a fine cook
can create a hunger in us that we did not know existed, so, is it possible for teachers to
create a hunger in their students to learn, discover, solve problems and use all their
cognitive capabilities. One way of doing this is to help students to see the linkages
between academic learning and real world implications emanating from them. They
have also to be shown ways of transferring their learning from one subject to another
and from one context to another. Further, if teaching is related to students' backgrounds
and experiences and the approach is to demystify the content and facilitate its
comprehension rather than mastery, then the task can become much more meaningful
challenging and enjoyable. From motivational theory, we also know that learners must
expect to succeed and must believe that what they are learning is important and valuable.
Challenge helps to promote a sense of value. Value is also enhanced when students
understand both what they are supposed to be learning and why they are learning it. This
is called task comprehension. As part of effective transaction, the introductory focus,
personal meaningfulness of what is being taught, involvement of students in the
lesson build up, tapping their repertoire of cognitive abilities and giving constructive
feedback are all very crucial.

Environment related factors

Among the significant environment related factors which affect learning are the physical
environment and the ethos or socio-emotional climate of the classroom. These
have already beeu discussed elaborately in Block 11in all the units addressing issues in
classroom management.
:1
To reiterate the important issues, the climate of a classroom refers to the prevailing
influence of psychological conditions that characterize the overall interpersonal feeling
tones existing within it. A teacher's leadership style has a strong impact on shaping
the personality of a classroom. Research indicates that classroom climate affects not
only how much is learned, but how much future learning there is likely to be. Students
are usually most receptive to and productive in classrooms in which they feel they can
influence decision - making and operating policies.

Positive climate teachers tend to be good listeners, good empathizers, high rewarders,
fair evaluators and are generous with positive feedback to all students.

How students and teachers feel about each other and how students handle their peer
relations ar.e important factors in shaping a classroom's teaching-learning environment.
Towards Understanding
the Processes of Teaching Self-assessment
and Learning in Higher
Education 8. Reflect on your own learning experiences since childhood and identify the
factors which influenced your learning.
9. Interview the students in your class who you feel are underachieving.
Investigate the causes led'ding to poor learning and und rachievement in
1
them. Think of ways, (based on your understanding of the "factors affecting
learning) of helping them.
10. Draw up a vision plan of an ideal classroom in your view. Which factors'
would you keep in mind while embarking on this task?
11. Develop check lists of all the teaching methods which you could use for .
. your' learners in different subject areas. Transact your classes based on
these and obtain feedback from your students.

Summary
In this unit you read about the concept of learning, types of learning and the different
factors which influence it. You must have understood that learning is a change in our
repertoire of concepts, ideas, skills and attitudes based on the exposure, practices and
experiences which we have. This learning occurs in several domains like affective learning,
cognitive learning, psychomotor learning, concept learning, principles' learning, etc.
Whatever we learn increases our efficiency and adaptability to the environment, provided
that it has been learned effectively. Learning is not be confused with instincts, reflex
actions, maturation or imprinting since it is distinct from them. It is something which is
acquired. We learn consciously and ;lI1consciously. What we learn, why we learn and
how well we learn are influenced by a number of factors. These include learner centred
factors like motivation, needs, self concept, interests, goals, level of aspiration etc., teacher
and task related factors such as teaching style, classroom ethos, transactional skills and
methodology etc. and environmental factors such as the physical and psychological
structures in which learning occurs.

Unit-end exercises
I. Explain the concept of learning with the help of suitable examples.

2. Among the different types of learning, which one/s have dominated your life, and
why?

3. Differentiate learning from all its related concepts by giving examples and analysing
them.

4. All learning can be explained with reference to the nature of the learner and the
context in which he/she lives, Discuss.

5. A healthy classroom environment promotes effective learning. Discuss the role of

the teacher in this regard.

Suggested readings
Eggen Paul and Kauchak Dan (1999) Educational Psychology, New Jersey: Prentice
Hall.

Harnachek Don (1990) Psychology in Teaching, Learning and Growth, Boston: Allyn
and Bacon.

Woolfolk, Anita (200 I) Educational Psychology, Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Yelon R. and Weinstein (1978)A Teacher s World, New York: McGraw Hill.