Dr.

Ali Younis
ali.ibrahim1@[Link]
ali_a_younis2006@[Link]
ali2006@[Link]

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis First Term 2022

 Amplifier Operation
• The biasing of the transistor is a pure DC operation to setup
the Q-point around which a small AC variation can occur.
• The AC variation must be small for linear operation as from
antenna or microphone
• The DC quantities are identified by nonitalic uppercase and capital subscribe as (IC ,
VC, VCE , RC)
• The AC quantities (rms and peak) are identified by nonitalic uppercase and small
subscribe as (Ic , Vc, Vce , Rc)
• The AC quantities (instantaneous) are identified small uppercase and small subscribe as
i, v , v , r )
c ceEngineering
Electrical c Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022
 BJT Amplifier
• In this chapter the use of the BJT as an amplifier for small signal will explained
• Small signal refers to signal that take up small percentage of the amplifier operational range
1. Describe amplifier operation
2. Discuss transistor models
3. Describe and analyze the operation of common-emitter amplifiers
4. Describe and analyze the operation of common-collector amplifiers
5. Describe and analyze the operation of common-base amplifiers
6. Describe and analyze the operation of multistage amplifiers
7. Discuss the differential amplifier and its operation
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022
 Linear Amplifier
• Linear amplifier provides an amplification of an AC signal without any distortion
(output is the same as input).
• For a voltage divider bias transistor with an AC input and coupling capacitors shown
• Coupling capacitor C1 and C2 are used to block DC and prevent Rs and RC from the
dc bias voltage
• The sinusoidal source voltage case the
base voltage to vary sinusoidal above
And below the DC bias level (VBQ)

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

• The change in the base current cause a large variation in the collector current due to the
transistor gain
• The collector current varies around its Q point
(ICQ) in phase with the base current but the
output voltage VCE change out of phase around
the Q point VCEQ as shown
• The AC load line is differ slightly from the DC
one due to the effect of RL in parallel with RC

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Example
• The ac load line operation of a certain amplifier extends above 10µA and below the
Q-point base current value of 50µA as shown. Determine the resulting peak-to-peak
values of collector current and collector-to-emitter voltage from the graph.
• Projections on the graph of Figure show the collector
current varying from 6 mA to 4 mA for a peak-to-peak
value of 2 mA and the collector-to-emitter voltage
Varying from 1 V to 2 V for a peak-to-peak value
of 1 V.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Transistor AC Model
• Transistor model uses all transistor internal parameters
(r-parameters) to describe its operation
• The five r parameters of the transistor are with r prime
for resistance
• The r parameters for BJT are shown
• The AC base resistance (rb’ ) is small and
replaced by short
• The collector resistance (rc’ ) is very high
replaced by open
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022
• The resistance between E and B junction is (re’ ) for the forward bias transistor
• The collector acts as a dependant current source (αac Ie or ßac Ib ) and represent as a
diamond shape
• The simplified model is shown
• The most important factor in the ac amplification is
• Example: Determine the re’ of a transistor that is operating with
a dc emitter current of 2 mA.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Comparison between
ßac and ßdc
• The value of ßac and ßdc are depend on the relation between Ib and Ic as shown
• ßdc is the ratio of collector current to the base current at the Q point but ßac is the
ratio between the change in the collector current to the change in the base current
around the Q point so they are differ slightly

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 h- parameters
• The datasheet of the transistors are typically specify using the h parameters because
they are easy to measure
• The h parameters are shown
• Each parameter has a second subscribe to
indicate the connected configuration as CE , CB or CC
• The relation between gain and h parameter is
• The datasheet are given for CE and has Relations

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 The Common Emitter Amplifier
• The common emitter amplifier (CE) configuration has the emitter as a common terminal or
ground for
AC signal and has
a high voltage and
current gain
• The CE amplifier with
voltage divider bias,
coupling capacitors (C1
and C2 ) and bypass
capacitor C3 is shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

• The input signal Vin is capacitive coupled to the base and the output signal Vout is
capacitive coupled from the collector
• The output is out of phase with the input because the input is to the base and the
output from the collector and the emitter is common
• There is no signal on the emitter due to the bypass capacitor
• The amplifier has both ac and dc operation but CE refer to the ac operation
• As the base current increase, the collector current increase and the voltage drob
across Rc increases so the collector voltage VCE decrease so the output is 180o with the
input
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022
 DC Operation
• To do dc analysis the dc equivalent circuit is developed by removing coupling and
bypass capacitor, ac input and load resistance as shown
• Using Thevenin’s and KVL :

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 AC Analysis
• To do the AC analysis the AC equivalent circuit is developed as follow:
1. The coupling and bypass capacitors are replaced by short circuit
2. The dc power supply are replaced by short due to they small internal
resistance
• The AC equivalent circuit with and without ac input are
shown
• When an AC input is applied there are two cases
1. When the AC source has zero input resistance so all the
Applied voltage appear at the base

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

• When the AC source has an internal resistance Rs as shown
• The equivalent of (R1 ‖ R2) and the base input resistance
(Rin(base) ) must be considered and the total input resistance is
• The total input resistance must be very high compared to Rs so all the input voltage
go to the base
• Using the voltage divider rule

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Input Resistance at the Base
• To calculate the base input resistance the r parameter model is considered as shown

• The total output resistance

• But RC is much less than the collector resistance so

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Example
• Determine the signal voltage at the base of the transistor in Figure shown. This
circuit is the ac equivalent of the amplifier above with a 10 mV rms, 300 Ω signal
source. IE was previously found to be 3.80 mA.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Voltage Gain
• The voltage gain can be developed using the AC model shown
• The voltage gain is the ratio of the ac collector voltage (Vc )
to the base voltage (Vb)

• This is gain from the base to collector, to calculate the total gain the attenuation in the
input signal must be considered
• Attenuation is the reduction in the input signal or gain less than 1
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022
• From the shown circuit the total gain is

• The bypass capacitor is short for the AC signal so

• To do that the capacitor value must be large enough so the capacitive reactance is smaller
compared to RE in the amplifier frequency range
• When the bypass capacitor is removed the total gain is so RE reduce the gain

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Example
• Select a minimum value for the emitter bypass capacitor, C2, in Figure shown if the
amplifier must operate over a frequency range from 200 Hz to 10 kHz.

• Calculate the base-to-collector voltage gain of the amplifier in Figure shown both
without and with an emitter bypass capacitor if there is no load resistor.
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022
 Effect of Load in the Voltage Gain
• A load is the amount of current drawn from the output of an
amplifier or other circuit through the load resistance
• When RL is connected as shown , the AC equivalent resistance is

• Calculate the base-to-collector voltage gain of the amplifier in Figure when a load
resistance 5 kΩ is connected to the output. The emitter is effectively bypassed and

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Stability of the Voltage Gain
• Stability is a measure of how will an amplifier maintain its designed value over change
temperature or for a transistor with a different ß
• The gain is depend on re’ which depend on IE and temperature so the gain is unstable
• With no bypass capacitor, the gain is decreased because of RE
• If

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Swamping re’ to stabilize the
voltage gain
• Swamping is a method used to minimize the effect of re’
without reducing the voltage gain to its minimum value
• Swamping is effectively a compromise between having a
bypass capacitor or not
• In a swamped amplifier RE is split to RE1 and RE2 (bypass) as shown
• Both RE1 and RE2 affect the dc bias but RE1 only affect the ac gain so
• If RE1 is much greater than re’
• For the circuit shown re’ =20 Ω
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022
 Effect of Swamping in
input resistance
• The input resistance
• Example: For the amplifier in Figure shown,
(a) Determine the dc collector voltage.
(b) Determine the ac collector voltage.
(c) Draw the total collector voltage
waveform and the total output voltage
waveform.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 AC analysis
• The

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Current gain
• The current gain from the base to collector

• Power gain is the product of voltage and current gain

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 The Common Collector
Amplifier
• The common collector (CC) amplifier refer to it as emitter follower
• The input to the base , the output at the emitter and the collector is common or
grounded
• It has a unity voltage gain , high current gain and high input resistance
• The CC amplifier with coupling capacitor is shown
• The input is capacitive coupled to the base and the output is capacitive coupled
from the emitter and the collector is grounded
• The output and input are the same in phase
and magnitude
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022
 Voltage Gain
• To calculate the voltage gain the AC model is considered as shown

• The input is in phase with the output and has the same magnitude so the output
follow the input so it called emitter follower

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Input , output Resistance and Gain
• The CC(EF) has a high input resistance so it can be used as a buffer to minimize the loading
effect for low resistance load
• The input resistance is calculated looking at the base as in CE but RE is not bypass because
the output is taken from it

• For no load
• The output resistance is very low so it is useful to driven low resistance load
• Current gain
• Power Gain

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Example
• Determine the total input resistance of the emitter-follower in Figure shown. Also
find the voltage gain, current gain, and power gain in terms of power delivered to the
load, RE. Assume ßac =175 and that the capacitive reactance's are negligible at the
frequency of operation.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Darlington Pair
• The most important factor in the input resistance is ßac
• To increase the input resistance the Darlington pair is used
• The collectors of the two transistor are connected and the
emitter of Q1 driven the base of Q2 This result in the multiplication of ßac

• Neglecting re’ which is much smaller than RE

• The CC(EF) is used as a buffer: as an interface between high output resistance and
low load resistance

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

• The Darlington Pair can be used as an interface
between CE amplifier and speaker as shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 The Sziklai Pair
• The same as Darlington but the transistors are NPN and PNP
• Know as complementary Darlington or complementary transistor
• Has the same current gain as Darlington
• The main difference is the Q1 base current is the Q2 collector current instead of
emitter current in Darlington
• It needs less input voltage to drive it so it can be used in power amplifier

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 The Common Base Amplifier
• Has a high voltage gain and a unity current gain
• Has low input impedance, so it is suitable when the source has a low resistance
• The Common Base (CB) amplifier with voltage divider bias, the input is capacitive
coupled to the emitter , the output is capacitive coupled from collector and the base is
grounded due to the capacitor C2 is shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Voltage Gain
• To calculate the voltage gain, the AC model is used as shown

• Input Resistance
• Output resistance
• Current Gain
• Power Gain

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Example
• Find the input resistance, voltage gain, current gain, and power gain for the amplifier
in Figure shown. ßDC = 250.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Multistage Amplifier
• To increase the overall voltage gain, multistage amplifier can be used,
• The output of any stage is the input to the next stage
• The overall gain for the shown amplifier is

• Example

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Capacitively-Coupled Multistage
Amplifier
• The two stage capacitive coupled amplifier is
• Each stage is a CE amplifier and the output of stage 1 is capacitively coupled to stage 2
• The coupling capacitor prevent the dc bias voltage from one to two and allow the ac
voltage only

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Loading Effect
• To calculate the voltage gain of the first stage, the loading effect of the second stage
must be considered because the C3 is short at the operating frequency
• The total input capacitance of the second stage present as a load to the first stage
• The collector of Q1 sees R3 , R5 , R6 , Rin(base2) in parallel as shown
• The voltage gain of the first stage is reduce due to the reduction of Rc
• First stage:

• Second stage:
• Overall Gain
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022
 DC voltage Gain in the Capacitivelly Coupled
Multi Stage Amplifier
• Since

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Direct Coupled Multi -Stage
• A two stage direct coupled amplifier without any capacitor is shown
• The DC collector voltage of the first stage provides a DC bias
voltage for the base of the second stage
• This type of amplifier has a better low frequency response because it doesn't have any
capacitor that have an effective value at the low frequency.
• The disadvantage of this configuration is that the DC variation due to an reason such
as temperature is amplified by the next stage which can result in DC drift in the
overall circuit

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 The Differential Amplifier
• Is an amplifier that produces an output that is a function of the difference between
two inputs voltage
• It has two modes of operation
1. Differential Mode: the two inputs are different
2. Common Mode: the two inputs are the same
• It is the basic block in the operational amplifier
• The differential amplifier with two inputs and two outputs is shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Basic Operation
DC analysis
• Case1: when there is no input as shown Both emitter at -0.7

• Case 2: when +ve bias voltage applied to input 1 and input 2

is grounded as shown
1. This increases IC1 and decreases VC1.
2. Also This decreases IC2 and increases VC2
• Case 3: when +ve bias voltage applied to input 2 and
input 1 is grounded as shown
1. This increases IC2 and decreases VC2.
2. Also This decreases IC1 and increases VC1
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022
 Mode of Operation
Single Ended Differential input
• Case1: signal is applied to input 1 and input 2 is grounded as shown
 Q1 is a CE amplifier so the output at collector is out of phase with
the base input
 Q2 is a CB amplifier so the output at collector is in phase with the
emitter input
• Case 2: signal is applied to input 2 and input 1 is grounded as shown
 Q2 is a CE amplifier so the output at collector is out of phase with
the base input
 Q1 is a CB amplifier so the output at collector is in phase with
the emitter input

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Double Ended Differential
Input
• Two out of phase signals are applied to both inputs as shown
• The two outputs due to input 1 are out of phase as shown as
before
• The two output due to input 2 are out of phase and in phase
with the output due to input 1 as shown
• Using supper position the outputs due to both inputs are
Added as shown

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Common Mode
Inputs
• Two signals with the same phase, frequency and amplitude
are applied to both inputs as shown
• The outputs due to each input are shown as before
• Using superposition the result outputs due to both input is zero
• This called common mode rejection

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Common Mode Rejection Ration
CMRR
• The common mode rejection used when unwanted signal appear at the input the
outputs will be zero as noise radiated signal
• The desired signals appear at the input with opposite polarity and amplified
• Unwanted noise signal appear at the input with the same polarity and cancel each other
• CMRR is the ability of an amplifier to reject the common mode signal
• The higher the CMRR the better amplifier
• Example:

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 Summary of CE amplifier
• Circuit with Voltage Divider Bias
• Input is at the base. Output is at the collector.
• There is a phase inversion from input to output.
• C1 and C3 are coupling capacitors for the input and output signals.
• C2 is the emitter-bypass capacitor.
• All capacitors must have a
negligible reactance at the
frequency of operation, so
they appear as shorts.
• Emitter is at ac ground due
• to the bypass capacitor.
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022
 Swamped Amplifier with
Resistive Load
• Swamping stabilizes gain by minimizing the effect of
• Swamping reduces the voltage gain from its unswamped value.
• Swamping increases input resistance.
• The load resistance reduces the voltage gain. The smaller the
• load resistance, the less the gain.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Summary of CC amplifier
• Circuit with Voltage Divider Bias
• Input is at the base. Output is at the emitter.
• There is no phase inversion from input to output.
• Input resistance is high. Output resistance is low.
• Maximum voltage gain is 1.
• Collector is at ac ground.
• Coupling capacitors must have
a negligible reactance at the
frequency of operation.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Summary of CB Amplifier
• Circuit with Voltage Divider Bias
• Input is at the emitter. Output is at the collector.
• There is no phase inversion from input to output.
• Input resistance is low. Output resistance is high.
• Maximum current gain is 1.
• Base is at ac ground

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Summary of Differential Amplifier
• CIRCUIT WITH DIFFERENTIAL INPUTS
• Double-ended differential inputs (shown)
Signal on both inputs
Input signals are out of phase
• Single-ended differential inputs (not shown)
Signal on one input only
One input connected to ground
• CIRCUIT WITH COMMON-MODE INPUTS
• Both input signals are the same phase, frequency, and amplitude.
• Common-mode rejection ratio:
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022
 Summary
• A small-signal amplifier uses only a small portion of its load line under signal conditions.
• The ac load line differs from the dc load line because the effective ac collector resistance is
less than the dc collector resistance.
• r parameters are easily identifiable and applicable with a transistor’s circuit operation.
• h parameters are important because manufacturers’ datasheets specify transistors using h
parameters.
• A common-emitter amplifier has high voltage, current, and power gains, but a relatively low
input resistance.
• Swamping is a method of stabilizing the voltage gain.
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022
 Summary
• A common-collector amplifier has high input
resistance and high current gain, but its voltage gain is
approximately 1.
• A Darlington pair provides beta multiplication for
increased input resistance.
• A common-collector amplifier is known as an emitter-follower.
• The common-base amplifier has a high voltage gain, but it has a very low input resistance and its
current gain is approximately 1.
• Common-emitter, common-collector, and common-base amplifier configurations are summarized in
Table.

Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022

 Summary
• The total gain of a multistage amplifier is the product of the individual gains (sum of dB
gains).
• Single-stage amplifiers can be connected in sequence with capacitively-coupling and direct
coupling methods to form multistage amplifiers.
• A differential input voltage appears between the inverting and noninverting inputs of a
differential amplifier.
• In the differential mode, a diff-amp can be operated with single-ended or double-ended inputs.
• In single-ended operation, there is a signal on one input and the other input is grounded.
• In double-ended operation, two signals that are 180° out of phase are on the inputs.
• Common-mode occurs when equal in-phase voltages are applied to both input terminals.
Electrical Engineering Department Dr. Ali Younis FirstTerm 2022