Research Article Vol. 33, No.

6 / 24 Mar 2025 / Optics Express 12982

Electrically pumped laser oscillation of C-band

InAs quantum dot vertical-cavity
surface-emitting lasers on InP(311)B substrate
M ICHINORI S HIOMI , 1,* H ARUKI K ISHIMOTO, 1
T OMOMASA WATANABE , 1 M ASAYUKI TANAKA , 1
DAIJI K ASAHARA , 1 H IROSHI N AKAJIMA , 1 M ASASHI TAKANOHASHI , 1
RYOJI A RAI , 1 Y UTA I NABA , 1 Y UDAI YAMAGUCHI , 1 Y UYA K ANITANI , 1
YOSHIHIRO K UDO, 1 M IKIHIRO YOKOZEKI , 1 N ORIYUKI F UTAGAWA , 1
K OUICHI A KAHANE , 2 AND N AOKATSU YAMAMOTO 2
1 Sony Semiconductor Solutions Corporation, Atsugi, Kanagawa 243-0014, Japan
2 National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Koganei, Tokyo 184-8795, Japan
* [Link]@[Link]

Abstract: We report, for the first time to the best of our knowledge, the demonstration of
electrically pumped laser oscillation of C-band InAs quantum dot vertical-cavity surface-emitting
lasers (QD VCSELs), fabricated on InP(311)B substrates by applying a strain compensation
technique. Under room-temperature pulsed operation, these devices exhibit a threshold current
of 13 mA, with an output power of 0.17 mW at 25 mA. Notably, the emitted light displays linear
polarization oriented along the InP[−233] direction. These QD VCSELs exhibit remarkable
potential as light sources for optical communication transceivers.

© 2025 Optica Publishing Group under the terms of the Optica Open Access Publishing Agreement

1. Introduction
Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) offer several advantages over their edge-emitting
counterparts, such as enhanced speed, reduced power consumption, and the feasibility for two-
dimensional integration. Consequently, there has been extensive research and development
activity in this field. The growing markets for optical communications and three-dimensional
(3D) sensing have spurred increased interest in VCSEL technology, which serves as a critical
component in optical transceivers for communication applications and dot projectors for 3D
sensing technologies [1,2].
Although prior research was predominantly focused on near-infrared VCSELs operating within
the wavelength range of 0.8–1.0 µm and fabricated on GaAs substrates, there has been a notable
shift toward long-wavelength (short wavelength near-infrared: SWIR) VCSELs produced on InP
substrates in recent years [3,4]. These SWIR-VCSELs are expected to facilitate the development of
cost-effective, high-speed optical transceivers, owing to their advantages in terms of minimizing
loss and mitigating wavelength dispersion in optical fiber systems. Additionally, because the
SWIR wavelength range is known as the eye-safe band with sufficiently high permissible exposure
levels, using SWIR-VCSELs as dot projectors can realize safe 3D sensing systems. Semiconductor
quantum dots (QDs) exhibit a discrete density of states that closely resembles a delta function
[5]. When deployed as the active layer in lasers, these QDs afford several advantageous features,
including low threshold currents, insensitivity to temperature fluctuations, high-temperature
operational stability, and the capability for rapid direct modulation [6–10]. Moreover, the unique
shape of QDs also enables control over polarization, which is a crucial attribute for applications
in optical communication and 3D sensing technologies without the need for surface gratings.

#551300 [Link]
Journal © 2025 Received 10 Dec 2024; revised 29 Jan 2025; accepted 3 Feb 2025; published 12 Mar 2025
 Research Article Vol. 33, No. 6 / 24 Mar 2025 / Optics Express 12983

In contrast, QDs, which possess a smaller effective volume compared to quantum wells (QWs),
often face difficulties in attaining sufficient optical gain in vertically structured devices such
as VCSELs [11]. Nonetheless, several studies have reported successful laser oscillation at a
wavelength of 1.3 µm via electrical pumping in QD VCSELs that utilize InAs QD active layers
on GaAs substrates [12–15].
Although low-threshold oscillation and effective polarization control of the wavelength at
1550 nm have been observed under optical pumping using InAs QD active layers on InP
substrates [16], the demonstration of electrically pumped oscillation remains elusive. Achieving
electrically pumped oscillation of QD VCSELs with InAs QD active layers on InP substrates could
significantly enhance wavelength-division multiplexing communication, leveraging low-loss
optical fibers around 1550 nm. Furthermore, it could enable the implementation of eye-safe 3D
sensing technologies that do not pose a risk of retinal damage. Given their potential in diverse
applications, we earlier investigated SWIR-VCSELs and developed new atomic-scale multimodal
techniques for analyzing QD active layers [17–19]. To tackle the issue of low effective gain, we
employed high-density InAs QD active layers, which were meticulously grown on InP(311)B
substrates via advanced strain compensation techniques [20,21]. The QD active layers produced
by employing these strain compensation methods have exhibited a remarkable array of oscillation
records in edge-emitting laser diodes [22–25].

2. Optically pumped QD VCSEL

To thoroughly evaluate the emission characteristics of the InAs QD active layers fabricated
with strain compensation techniques, we commenced our assessment with optically pumped
VCSELs. Figures 1(a) and 1(b) depict the cross-sectional schematic of the optically pumped
VCSEL alongside a cross-sectional image of the multilayer-stacked QD layers obtained using
high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM; JEOL
ARM-300F; acceleration voltage: 300 kV; detector acquisition angle: 45–180 mrad).

Fig. 1. (a) Cross-sectional schematic of the optically pumped QD VCSEL. (b) Cross-
sectional HAADF-STEM image of the multilayer-stacked InAs QDs.

The samples were synthesized on InP(311)B substrates through solid-source molecular beam
epitaxy, with the active region comprising five InAs QD layers exhibiting an effective thickness
of 3.8 ML, interspersed with 20 nm of InGaAlAs layers. Strain compensation was strategically
implemented to enhance crystallinity and maximize QD density (∼8 × 1010 cm−2 ), whereby the
strain in the InAs layers was effectively counterbalanced by the InGaAlAs spacers [20,21]. The
full width at half maximum of the QD layers obtained from photoluminescence (PL) evaluation
was approximately 100 nm (52 meV). The emission region of the VCSEL was designed to include
 Research Article Vol. 33, No. 6 / 24 Mar 2025 / Optics Express 12984

five QD layers, with the active region carefully positioned at an antinode of the electric field within
the cavity. Moreover, the cavity length was meticulously optimized to resonate at a wavelength
of 1550 nm. Dielectric distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) mirrors—composed of eight (top) and
ten pairs (bottom) of SiO2 /TiO2 —were formed via ion-assisted e-beam evaporation. Following
the deposition of DBR on the InP wafer, the substrate was bonded to a support medium removed
by a combination of polishing and etching, after which the top mirror layer was deposited. This
technique was specifically employed to produce samples intended for optical pumping; however,
alternative structures are available that provide enhanced heat dissipation capabilities [26,27].
For the optical pumping experiments, a micro-PL system was utilized, incorporating a Q-
switched laser operating at a wavelength of 1064 nm with a pulse width of 1 ns and a repetition
rate of 15 kHz. This system employed a focused laser spot size of 100 µm, which was deliberately
chosen to excite only the QD active region, thereby minimizing the thermal effects during the
assessment process. Figure 2 presents the optical pumping results of the InAs QD VCSEL. For
comparison, the results of InGaAsP QW VCSEL grown on InP(100) substrate are also shown as
an overlay. The threshold excitation powers were observed to be ∼45 µW and ∼60 µW for the
QD and QW VCSELs, respectively. Notably, a pronounced increase in the PL peak was observed
at the threshold of 45 µW for the QD VCSEL, with lasing occurring at a wavelength of 1550 nm.

Fig. 2. (a) PL peak intensity of the QD VCSEL (blue dots) and QW VCSEL (brown dots).
(b) Emission spectra of the QD VCSEL before and after lasing.

Although the QW structure exhibits higher material gain compared to the QD structure, in
the fabricated optically pumped VCSELs, most of the excitation light is absorbed within the
active region, including the spacer layers, in both QD and QW VCSEL. Consequently, a nearly
identical number of carriers are generated, contributing to the emission. The lower threshold
of the QD VCSEL compared to the QW VCSEL can be attributed to two factors: the smaller
volume of the QD structure, which results in lower losses, and the δ-function-like density of
states of QDs. However, in electrically pumped QD VCSEL, sufficient carrier injection into the
QDs must be achieved. The low-threshold characteristics observed in optically pumped VCSELs
are expected to be realized in electrically pumped VCSELs if proper carrier injection into the
QDs is successfully achieved. To this end, we have been advancing structural analysis of QDs
and device development to optimize carrier injection into the QDs [17–19].

3. Electrically pumped QD VCSEL

The physical appearance and the cross-sectional schematic of the electrically pumped QD
VCSELs (fabricated in this study) are shown in in Fig. 3(a) and Fig. 3(b), respectively. The QD
active layers, grown on InP(311)B substrates, retained the same structure as those used in the
 Research Article Vol. 33, No. 6 / 24 Mar 2025 / Optics Express 12985

optically pumped VCSELs. The QD VCSEL was fabricated following the typical InP-based
Buried-Tunnel-Junction (BTJ) -VCSEL formation process [28]. First, the bottom DBR mirror was
formed on an InP(311)B substrate by epitaxial growth, consisting of 62 pairs of InP/InGaAlAs
layers [29]. The cladding layers, QD active layers, and tunnel junction were then epitaxially
grown on the bottom DBR. Here, the QD active layers have the same structure as those used in
the optically pumped VCSEL. Next, the TJ layer was patterned into an aperture shape by wet
etching, followed by the embedded growth of InP:Si. Subsequently, mesa etching was performed
using reactive ion etching (RIE), and the upper and lower electrodes were deposited. Finally,
the upper DBR mirror, composed of SiO2 /TiO2 pairs, was deposited using ion-assisted electron
beam evaporation, and the contact area was opened via RIE to complete the QD VCSEL.

Fig. 3. (a) Appearance and (b) cross-sectional schematic of the electrically pumped QD
VCSEL.

Figure 4 showcases the light-current-voltage (L-I-V) characteristics and emission spectrum of

the developed VCSEL at a bias current of 15 mA. The VCSEL features an aperture diameter of
12 µm and operates under pulsed conditions with a pulse width of 1 µs and a duty cycle of 1% at
room temperature. In panel 4a, lasing is initiated at a threshold current of 13 mA, with the output
power peaking at 0.17 mW when the current is increased to 25 mA. The observed nonlinearity in
the light-current (L-I) curve is attributed to the rollover phenomenon, which is caused by the
carrier overflow under thermal effects under bias conditions. In panel 4b, the emission spectrum
at a current of 15 mA reveals a lasing wavelength of 1536 nm, which can be further fine-tuned by
adjusting the cavity length to better align with the wavelength at 1550 nm, which is commonly
used in optical communication systems.
Furthermore, Fig. 5 delineates the polarization characteristics of the QD VCSEL. A polarizer
was strategically positioned horizontally in relation to the substrate surface, with 0° and 90°
denoting linear polarization along the InP[01−1] and InP[−233] crystallographic directions,
respectively. As portrayed in Fig. 5(a), the linear polarization aligns with the InP[−233] direction
at 15 mA. As displayed in Fig. 5(b), the L-I-V characteristics with the polarizer fixed in the [01−1]
and [−233] directions, with no conserved polarization switching. This outcome corroborates
the findings from earlier optical pumping investigations [16]. Furthermore, Fig. 6 displays
a plan-view HAADF-STEM images of the QD active layer, viewed from the [311] direction.
The measurement conditions remain consistent with those described in Fig. 1(b). The analysis
of the image reveals that the QDs exhibit an elliptical morphology, characterized by a major
axis measuring 33.0 nm along the InP[−233] direction and a minor axis of 19.8 nm along the
InP[01−1] direction.
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Fig. 4. (a) L-I-V characteristics of the QD VCSEL. (b) Spectrum of the QD VCSEL at 15
mA.

Fig. 5. (a) Polarization characteristics of the QD VCSEL at 15 mA. (b) L-I-V characteristics
of the QD VCSEL with the polarizer.

Fig. 6. Plan-view HAADF-STEM images of the QD active layer.

 Research Article Vol. 33, No. 6 / 24 Mar 2025 / Optics Express 12987

The emission characteristics of elliptical QDs are typically polarized along their major axis
due to inherent shape effects [30], and the findings of this study are in agreement with this
behavior. However, the previously reported strain induced during crystal growth may also
influence polarization control [31], implying that the observed polarization behavior is influenced
by a combination of both shape and strain effects. Thus, polarization control was successfully
demonstrated without using surface gratings, which is an important aspect of this research.
Polarization control is often a critical requirement in various applications and serves as a
significant advantage of QD VCSELs over QW VCSELs.

4. Conclusion
This study successfully demonstrated the electrically pumped oscillation of C-band InAs QD
VCSELs fabricated on InP substrates. Under room-temperature pulsed operation, a threshold
current of 13 mA and an output power of 0.17 mW were achieved. As previously demonstrated
in the context of optically pumped oscillation results [16], polarization control along the [−233]
direction has been confirmed in electrically pumped VCSELs. To the best of our knowledge, this
investigation marks the inaugural examination of InAs QD VCSELs on InP substrates. In the
previously fabricated 1.3 µm InAs QD VCSELs on GaAs substrates, a threshold current of 6.2
mA and a Pmax of 0.85 mW were achieved with an aperture diameter of 10 µm [15]. Additionally,
for application in communication VCSELs, a threshold current of less than 1 mA and an output
power of more than 1 mW are required. Therefore, to facilitate practical applications, significant
advancements in threshold current and output power are essential. These improvements require
the optimization of device architecture and fabrication processes, an enhancement of optical
gain, and an augmentation of carrier injection efficiency into the QD active layers. We intend
to persist with this research to achieve L-I characteristics that are on par with those of QW
VCSELs. If achieved, next-generation optical transceivers for optical communication—capable
of high-temperature operation and high-speed direct modulation—will be realized by leveraging
the merits of QD active layers.
Disclosures. The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Data availability. Data underlying the results presented in this paper are not publicly available at this time but may
be obtained from the authors upon reasonable request.

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