Unit V - STABILITY ANALYSIS

Power system stability

The stability of an interconnected power system means the ability of the power system to return or
regain to normal or stable operating condition after having been subjected to some form of disturbance.
5.1 CLASSIFICATION OF POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

5.1.1 ROTOR ANGLE STABILITY

Rotor angle stability is the ability of interconnected synchronous machines of a power system to remain
in synchronism.
Depending on the nature of disturbance the stability can be classified into the following three types,

a) STEADY STATE STABILITY

Steady state stability is defined as the ability of the power system to bring it to a stable condition or
remain in synchronism after a small disturbance.
Steady state stability limit
The steady state stability limit is the maximum power that can be transferred by a machine to receiving
system without loss of synchronism.

1
Methods to improve steady state stability
In practice the methods to improve the steady state stability are:
 Reducing the reactance between the stations- made possible by adding machines or lines in parallel or
by using machines of lower inherent impedance.
 Optimum conditions of X=√ 3 R for maximum power transfer is approached by using series capacitors
for overhead lines and series reactors for underground cables
 Higher excitation voltages
 Quick response excitation system
b) TRANSIENT STABILITY
It is the ability of the system to bring it to a stable condition after a large disturbance. Large disturbance
can occur due to the occurrence of fault, sudden outage of a line, sudden loss of excitation, sudden application
or removal of loads, etc.
Transient stability limit
The maximum power which can be transmitted between the given pair of buses such that the system
does not become unstable when it is subjected to a specified sudden large disturbances under specified initial
condition.
When the load on the system is increased suddenly, maximum power that can be transmitted without
losing synchronism is termed as transient state stability limit. Normally, steady state stability limit is greater
than transient state stability limit.
Assumptions for transient stability
The assumptions for transient stability are given as follows
 Rotor speed is assumed to be synchronous. In fact, it varies in significantly during the course of the
stability study.
 Shunt capacitances are not difficult to account for in a stability study.
 Loads are modeled as constant admittances.
In a power system, both power system security as well as power system stability are of equal importance
because for any power system, active power (KW) control, and reactive power control (KVAR) are the driving
parameters.
Active power can be increased by increasing torque angle (delta), one can get maximum power transfer at delta
equals to 90 degree (steady state limit) which is theoretical (cannot be reached) because with little disturbance,
system will be unstable.
With increase in torque angle (increased KW), if the increased KVAR demand is not satisfy the power factor
will more lagging, hence more current demand and the relatively, increased voltage drop will reduced supply
voltage, hence for power system security(voltage) constant reactive power control is also needed, with increased
KW demand.
Methods to improve the transient stability
The transient stability limit of power system can be improved by following methods.
 Increase of system voltages
 Use of high speed excitation systems.
 Reduction in system transfer reactance
 Use of high speed reclosing breakers.

2
 The control schemes that are included in the stability control techniques is mentioned below
 Excitation systems-The process of creating the magnetic field for the alternator by providing the
DC current to the field winding of alternator
 Turbine valve control-controlling the flow rate of steam to a steam turbine
 Single pole operation of circuit breakers
 Faster fault clearing times-maximum time during which a disturbance can be applied without
the system losing its stability.
c) DYNAMIC STABILITY
An extension of steady state stability is known as dynamic stability. It is the ability of a power system
to remain in synchronism after the initial swing (transient stability period) until the system has settled down to
the new steady state equilibrium condition. It is concerned with small disturbances lasting for a long time with
the inclusion of automatic control devices.

Voltage stability
It is the ability of a power system to maintain steady acceptable voltages at all buses in the system under
normal operating conditions and after being subjected to a disturbance.
Causes of voltage instability
A system enters a state of voltage instability when a disturbance, increase in load demand, or change in
system condition causes a progressive and uncontrollable drop in voltage. The main factor causing instability is
the inability of the power system to meet the demand for reactive power.
Numerical integration methods of power system stability find its application in recent days because engineering
and numerical methods of solution are interrelated to each other. A wide range of solutions are available for any
kind of linear or non-linear model of any power system. And some of the numerical integration methods of
power system are as follows.

 Point by point method or step by step method- is conventional, approximate but well tried and proven
method. This method determines the changes in the rotor angular position during a short interval of time.
 Euler method-a first-order numerical procedure for solving ordinary differential equations (ODEs) with
a given initial value.
 Modified Euler method
 Runge- Kutta method

5.2 SWING EQUATION FOR MULTIMACHINE SYSTEM

Let Tm be the driving mechanical torque
Te be the electrical torque
The motor action and generator action is shown in figure.
For generator action, Tm and Te are positive
θm is positive

Under steady state with losses neglected. Tm = Te Acceleration torque Ta = Tm – Te = 0 i.e. no accelerating

3
torqueTa = Tm – Te Let J be the moment of inertia of the prime mover and generator.
From Law’s of rotation,

Where θm is the angular displacement of the rotor with respect to the stationary reference axis on stator. θm
increase with time even at constant synchronous speed.

Inertia constant

p.u. Inertia Contant

4
Consider a generator connected to an infinite bus through a double transmission line as shown in fig.

Infinite Bus
The substation bus voltage and frequency is assumed to remain constant. This is called as infinite bus,
since its characteristics do not change regardless of the power supplied or consumed by any device connected to
it.
The generator model is shown below and the equivalent circuit diagram also represented a classical model
and all resistance are neglected is as shown in figure.

5
The simplified equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig.

Case (ii) :Assume infinite bus voltage V as reference.

Where δ = Rotor angle with respect to synchronous rotating reference phasor E’ leads V by δ.
SWING CURVE
The swing curve is the plot or graph between the power angle δ and time t. From the nature of variations of δ
the stability of a system for any disturbance can be determined.

6
The equivalent moment of inertia,

M 1 S 1 M 2 S2
M eq = +
Sb Sb

Where, S1& S2 = MVA rating of machine 1 & 2 respectively

Sb = Base MVA or MVA rating of system.
5.3 POWER ANGLE EQUATION OF TWO MACHINE.
The equation relating the electrical power generated (Pe) to the angular displacement of the rotor (δ) is called
power angle [Link] the synchronous machine represented by a constant voltage E’ behind the direct axis
transient reactance X’d as shown in fig.

Consider a generator connected to a major substation of a very large system (Infinite bus) through a
transmission line as shown in fig.

Eliminate the generator terminal voltage (Vt) node by using Y-Δ transformation as shown in fig.

Nodal Equations :

7
This equation is called as Power angle Equation.

Power angle curve:

All the elements are susceptance, then G11 = 0.

Power transmitted depends on the transfer reactance X12 and the angle between the voltages E’ and V i.e., (δ).
The curve Pe versus δ is known as power angle curve. The Power angle curve is as shown in fig.

5.4 EQUAL AREA CRITERIA.

A three phase fault is occurred at point F of the outgoing radial line at bus 1 is shown in figure. The
accelerating area A1 begins to increase and point moves along bc. At time tc (clearing time ) corresponding to
angle δc (clearing angle), the faulted line is cleared by opening of the circuit breaker. The rotor is now
decelerated and the decelerating area A 2 begins, while the point moves along de and the path is retraced along
the curve.

8
 If an angle δ1 can be found that area A 1 = Area A2 the system is found to be stable. The system finally
settles down to be the steady state operating point at a in an oscillatory manner because of inherent damping. At
point a, Pm=Pe
Prefault condition:

During Fault condition :

The generator gets isolated from power system for purpose of power flow as shown in figure.

Post fault condition:

The circuit breaker at two ends of the faulted line open at time tcr disconnecting the faulted line. The circuit is as
shown in figure.

5.5 CRITICAL CLEARING AND CRITICAL CLEARING TIME:

Obviously Pmax2 < Pmax1
The critical clearing angle is reached when any further increase in δ c causes the Area A2 < Area A1. This occurs
when δmax or point e is at the intersection of line Pm and curve Pe as shown in figure.

9
Apply equal area criterion. Area A1 = Area A2

For a stable system,

During a 3φ fault, Pe = 0, therefore the swing equation becomes

Where H= p.u. inertia constant.

f= frequency

10
Pm= Mechanical Power
δcr = Critical clearing angle
δ0 = Rotor angle

The load rejection in the power system network causes the following. On a macro level, any rejection of
connected load reduces both electrical and mechanical load on the generator and prime-mover respectively.
This makes for a momentary increase in generator voltage and speed of the prime mover. Increase in speed of
the prime mover increases the frequency. But both the deviations are brought under control by the controls to
ensure quality power to the customers.

Example 1: A generator is operating at 50 Hz delivers 1 p.u. power to an infinite bus through a

transmission circuit in which resistance is ignored. A fault takes place reducing the maximum power
transferable to 0.4 p.u., whereas before the fault, this power was 1.6 p.u. and after the clearance of the
fault, it is 1.2 p.u. By the use of equal area criterion, determine the critical clearing angle.
Solution:
The power angle curve is as shown in fig.

Pe1= 1.6 sin δ

Pmax1= 1.6 p.u.
Pe2= 0.4 sin δ
Pmax2= 0.4 p.u.
Pe3= 1.2 sin δ
Pmax3= 1.2 p.u.
Initial loading Pm = sin δ0 = 1/ 1.6

Applying equal area criterion,

Area A1 = Area A2

11
Example 2: Find the critical clearing angle and time for clearing the fault with simultaneous opening of
the breakers when a three phase fault occurs at point P close to bus 1 as shown in the Fig. The generator
is delivering 1.0 pu. power at the instant preceding the fault.

Solution:
Under pre-fault condition,
0 .5×0 . 4
X 1 =0 . 25+ +0 . 05=0 . 522 p . u.
0 .5+0 . 4
|E '||V | 1 .2
Pe 1 = sin δ= sin δ=2. 3 sin δ
X1 0 . 522
1 .0
sin δ o = =0 . 4348
2 .3
δ o =0 . 45 radians
Under post fault condition,
Pe 3 =1 .5 sin δ
Pmax 3 =1 .5

δ max =π−sin−1
[ ]
Pm
P max3
= 2.41 radians.

Equating area A1 and A2,

δ cr −0 . 45=−1. 293+1 .5 cos δ cr +δ cr
0 . 843
cos δ cr = =0 .562
1 .5
δ cr =0 . 974=55. 8 deg

Example 3: A 3 ph generator delivers 1.0 p.u. power to an infinite bus through a transmission network
when a fault occurs. The maximum power which can be transferred during prefault, during fault and
post fault conditions is 1.75 p.u., 0.4 p.u, 1.25 p.u. Find critical clearing angle.
Solution:
The power angle curve is as shown in fig.

Pe1= 1.75 sin δ

Pmax1= 1.75 p.u.
Pe2= 0.4 sin δ
Pmax2= 0.4 p.u.
Pe3= 1.25 sin δ

12
 Pmax3= 1.25 p.u.
Initial loading Pm =1.0 p.u.

Applying equal area criterion,

Area A1 = Area A2

Example 4: As shown in given figure the three phase fault is applied at point ‘p’. Find the critical
clearing angle for clearing the fault with simultaneous opening of the breaker 1 and [Link] reactance
values of various components are indicated on the diagram. The generator is delivering 1.0 p.u power at
the instant proceeding the fault.

Normal operation (Prefault)

Prefault operating power angel is given by

13
 1.0 = 2.3 sin δ0
δ0 = 25.8o = 0.45 radians
(ii) During Fault: No power is transferred during fault
Pe2 = 0
(iii) Post fault operational (fault cleared by opening the faulted line)
XIII = 0.25 + 0.5+ 0.05 = 0.8

Applying equal area criterion for critical clearing angle δC

Example 5: A 150 MVA generator transformer unit having an overall reactance of 0.3 p.u. is delivering
150 MW to infinite bus bar over a double circuit 220 KV line having reactance per phase per circuit of
100 ohms. A three phase fault occurs midway along one of the transmission lines. Calculate the maximum
angle of swing that the generator may achieve before the fault is cleared without loss of stability.

14
Solution

Prefaultcondition : Impedance diagram for prefault condition is as shown in fig.

j0.31 is in parallel with j0.31

During the fault : Positive sequence reactance diagram

Using Delta-star conversion,

15
Using star – Delta conversion,

Power transfer during fault

Post fault condition: Faulted line is removed by opening the circuit breaker at ends. Impedance diagram for
postfault is as shown in fig.

Power angle curve is as shown in fig.

Determining of critical clearing angle:

16
Applying equal area criteria A1 = A2

Example 6 : A synchronous motor is receiving 30% of the power that it is capable of receiving from an
infinite bus. If the load on the motor is doubled, calculate the maximum value of δ during the swinging of
the motor around its new equilibrium position.
Solution:
For loading 30% of power,
|E '||V |
Pe = sin δ o=P max sin δ o
Power transfer X
Pm=0.3
The load on the motor is doubled,
Pmax=0.6
Pe
sin
δ o = P max

δ max =π −sin
−1
( )
Pm
Pmax

¿ π−sin−1 ( 0.3
0.6 )
= 2.61799 rad
Example 7: The moment of inertia of a 4 pole, 100 MVA, 11 KV, 3 phase 0.8 power factor, 50 HZ turbo
alternator is 10000kg-m2. Calculate H and M.
Solution:
Number of poles P=4
Frequency, f=50Hz
Moment of inertia, J=10000 kg-m2

17
 120 f 120∗50
Rated speed=N= = =1500 rpm
P 4

( )
2
1 2 1 2 π∗1500
Kinetic energy stored = J ω = ∗10000∗ =123.337 MJ
2 2 60
Inertia constants
K . E .∈ MJ 123.337
M= = =0.013707 MJ/elec. degree
180∗f 180∗50
K . E .∈ MJ 123.337
H= = =0.0123 MJ/elec. degree
MVA 100
5.6 METHODS TO IMPROVE STABILITY
5.6.1 SWING EQUATION FOR MULTI-MACHINE SYSTEMS BY RUNGE-KUTTA METHOD.
In this method, the accuracy is of the order of (t). Swing equation of one machine connected to infinite
bus.

Value of

Initial value of
I estimates:

II estimates:

III estimates:

IV estimates:

Final estimates at t=t1:

18
In the final estimates, the value of’ and’ for the first iterations are [Link] and  by ’ and
’recalculate the values of k1,k2,k3,k4, l1,l2,l3,l4.
Compute

Where i=1,2,……………….,n (i.e., number of generators)

Check for convergence: If i+1 - I =0 and i+1 - I =0 are satisfied, then note down critical clearing angle 
and the critical clearing time t.
Otherwise repeat the process and do it for each and every machine.
5.6.2 SWING EQUATION BY MODIFIED EULER’S METHOD
Numerical integration techniques can be applied to obtain approximate solutions of non-linear differential
equations.
Consider a generator connected to an infinite bus through two parallel lines and a 3ϕ fault occurs at the
middle of line 2 as shown in figure.

Let Pm be the input power which is a constant.

Prefault Condition: Under steady state operation,Power transfer from generator to an infinite bus,
Pe=Pm

During the fault : Consider a 3ϕ fault occurs at the middle of one line 2 as shown in fig.

19
Compute the derivatives: Using the predicted value, determine the derivatives at the end of iteration.

Computing the final estimated corrected value,

5.6.3 MODIFIED EULER’S METHOD FOR POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

Step by step procedure:
1. Perform load flow study for prefault condition and determine initial bus voltage magnitudes and angles.
Calculate prefault generator current,

20
 Ii  =
2. Compute

Define initial rotor angle .

3. Compute Y-bus matrix during the fault and post fault condition.
4. Set time count r=0.
5. Calculate generator power output Pei.

6. Assume uniform discrete time interval t.

Solve swing equation during the fault upto the fault clearing time and repeat the steps for post fault
condition.

7. Compute

Using

8. Compute the first state estimates for t=tr+1 as

9. Compute the first estimates of

10. Compute

11. Compute

21
12. Compute the average values of state derivatives.

=
average

=
average

13. Compute the final state estimates for t=tr+1.

14. Compute the final estimate for Ei at t=tr+1.

15. Print
16. If r > rfinal, stop.
Otherwise r = r+1 (Increment r) and repeat from step (6).
17. Examine  Vs t plot (swing curve) to determine stability of the system.

5.6.4 MODIFIED EULER’S METHOD - TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS

Numerical integration techniques can be applied to obtain approximate solutions of non-linear
differential equations.
Consider a generator connected to an infinite bus through two parallel lines and a 3ϕ fault occurs at the
middle of line 2.
Let Pm be the input power which is a [Link] Condition: Under steady state operation,Power
transfer from generator to an infinite bus,
Pe=Pm

During the fault :

22
Consider a 3ϕ fault occurs at the middle of one line 2 (2)

Compute the derivatives : Using the predicted value, determine the derivatives at the end of iteration.

Computing the final estimated corrected value,

23
Flow Chart: - Transient Stability analysis using Modified Euler’s Method

24
25