Quaid-e-Awaam University College of

Engineering, Science and Technology Larkana

Electrical Machines Notes

Name: Ali Abdullah Memon

Roll no: L-20EL-41

Batch: 2020

Semester: 4th

Department: Electrical Engineering

TRANSFORMER:
A transformer is defined as a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy
from one circuit to another through the process of electromagnetic induction. It is
most commonly used to increase (‘step up’) or decrease (‘step down’) voltage levels
between circuits.

Working principle of transformer:

The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and mutual
induction.
There are usually two coils primary coil and secondary coil on the transformer core. The core
laminations are joined in the form of strips. The two coils have high mutual inductance. When an
alternating current pass through the primary coil it creates a varying magnetic flux. As per faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction, this change in magnetic flux induces an emf (electromotive force)
in the secondary coil which is linked to the core having a primary coil. This is mutual induction.
Overall, a transformer carries the below operations:

1. Transfer of electrical energy from circuit to another

2. Transfer of electrical power through electromagnetic induction
3. Electric power transfer without any change in frequency
4. Two circuits are linked with mutual induction
The figure shows the formation of magnetic
flux lines around a current-carrying wire. The
normal of the plane containing the flux lines are
parallel to normal of a cross-section of a wire.

The figure shows the formation of varying

magnetic flux lines around a wire-wound. The
interesting part is that reverse is also true,
when a magnetic flux line fluctuates around a
piece of wire, a current will be induced in it.
This was what Michael faraday found in 1831
which is the fundamental working principle of
electric generators as well as transformers.

Basic Construction Of Transformer

It mainly consists of

1. Magnetic circuit (consisting of core, limbs, yoke and damping structure).

2. Electrical circuit (consisting of primary and secondary windings)
3. Dielectric circuit (consisting of insulations in different forms and used at different
places)
4. Tanks and accessories (conservator, breather, bushings, cooling tubes, etc.)
.
Types Of Transformers
Transformers can be classified on different basis, like types of construction, types of cooling
etc.

(A) On the basis of construction, transformers can be classified into two types
as; (i) Core type transformer and (ii) Shell type transformer, which are described below.

(I) Core Type Transformer

In core type transformer, windings are
cylindrical former wound, mounted on
the core limbs as shown in the figure
above. The cylindrical coils have
different layers and each layer is
insulated from each other. Materials like
paper, cloth or mica can be used for
insulation. Low voltage windings are
placed nearer to the core, as they are
easier to insulate.

(Ii) Shell Type Transformer

The coils are former wound and mounted in layers stacked with insulation between them. A
shell type transformer may have simple rectangular form (as shown in above fig), or it may
have a distributed form.

(B) On the basis of their purpose

1. Step up transformer: Voltage increases (with subsequent decrease in current) at
secondary.
2. Step down transformer: Voltage decreases (with subsequent increase in current) at
secondary.
(C) On the basis of type of supply
1. Single phase transformer
2. Three phase transformer
(D) On the basis of their use
1. Power transformer: Used in transmission network, high rating
2. Distribution transformer: Used in distribution network, comparatively lower rating than
that of power transformers.
3. Instrument transformer: Used in relay and protection purpose in different instruments in
industries
▪ Current transformer (CT)
▪ Potential transformer (PT)
(E) On the basis of cooling employed
1. Oil-filled self cooled type
2. Oil-filled water cooled type
3. Air blast type (air cooled)
Parts of Dc Machine:
1) Yoke:
The yoke make by cast steel for large machines and cast iron for a small machine. It is used
to protect the DC machine‘s internal parts and gives mechanical support to the poles.
The yoke provides a return path for magnetic flux. The laminations are not required in the
yoke, but the modern machines use the laminations in yoke.

2) Poles and Pole shoe:

The pole core is used to provide housing to the field winding. When field winding excites, it
behaves like a magnet. The pole shoes provide mechanical support to the field winding, and
due to a large area, it reduces the magnetic reluctance.

The pole and pole shoe make by cast steel. Pole is not necessary to laminate. But, the pole
shoe is always laminated because it is close to the armature.

3) Armature:
Armature core provides housing to the armature winding. It completes low reluctance path
for magnetic flux. The armature slots are skew at some angle to reduce the mechanical
vibration. Armature core is made with silicon steel.

It is laminated to reduce the eddy current losses. In a DC machine, open slots are use to
reduce leakage flux, inductance, and leakage reluctance.

4) Armature winding and Field winding:

There are two types of armature windings; Lap winding and Wave winding.
Lap winding is known as complete winding because, after winding completion, all slots fill
with armature winding. Wave winding is known as incomplete winding because, after
completion of winding, all slots do not fill with armature winding, and some remain empty.

These slots do fill with dummy coils. The dummy coils only use in wave winding to fill empty
slots and give mechanical balance. It is not used in lap winding.
In lap winding, due to unbalance flux and unbalance voltage, the circulating current is more.
It causes more copper loss and heat. The circulating current can minimize by using the
equalizer ring. In wave winding, a circulating current does not exist.

The field winding connects with DC supply. When the field winding is energies, it produces
the magnetic flux and poles behaves like a magnet.

5) Commutator:
In case of a generator, the commutator uses to convert AC voltage into DC voltage. The
commutator uses as a rectifier.
In the case of the motor, the commutator use to produce unidirectional torque. To reduce
wear and tear, the commutator makes of rigid drawn copper. The number of armature slots
is equal to the number of commutator segments.

6) Brush:
Brushes use to carry the current or give the current to the armature conductors through the
commutator. The brushes are made of copper or carbon materials for small machines.
Electro-graphite brushes use for large machines; carbon-graphite brushes use for large
current low voltage machines.

7) Shaft:
The shaft is used to transfer mechanical power. In case of a DC motor, mechanical power
transfer from DC machine to load. In the case of a DC generator, mechanical power is
transfer from Prime mover to the DC generator.
 Types of DC Machine

The DC machine works on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. There are two
windings in the DC machine; field winding and armature winding. The circulating current
supplied to the field winding that produces the magnetic flux. It called excitation. According
to the excitation, there are two types of DC machine.
1. Separately Excited DC machine
2. Self-Excited DC machine
Separately Excited DC Machine
This type of DC machine requires two DC sources. One source connected with the field
winding. This source used for excitation. Another source connected with the armature
winding. Therefore, in this machine, armature current will not flow through the field
winding.

Here, the field winding is physically separated from the armature

winding. But both windings are mutually connected with the
magnetic field.

A separately excited motor is not used in common applications.

Because this type of machine is very costly due to additional power
source for the excitation. This machine used as a motor in steel

rolling mills, paper machines, etc. The circuit diagram of this machine
is as shown in the below figure.
 Self-Excited DC Machine
There is a physical connection between the field winding and the armature winding. The
field winding connected in various types with the armature winding.

According to the type of connection, there are three types of DC machine.

1. Shunt-wound DC machine
2. Series wound DC machine
3. Compound wound DC machine
Shunt Wound DC Machine
In the Shunt wound DC machine, the field winding and armature winding connected in
parallel. If this machine used as a motor, the shunt field gets motor supply voltage. And if
this machine used as a generator, the shunt field gets the complete output voltage.

Shunt field winding made with a large number of turns. And the resistance of winding is
kept high in the range of hundreds of ohms.

It takes a small amount of current which is less than 5% of the rated armature current. The
circuit diagram of the DC machine is as shown in the below figure.

The DC shunt motor used where high starting torque required. It used in lathe machine,
fans, blowers, lifts, spinning machines, conveyors and centrifugal pumps, etc.

The DC shunt generator used for lighting purposes. It used to charge a battery and also used
for providing excitation to the alternator.
Series Wound DC Machine
The field winding of machine connected in series with the armature winding. Both windings
connected in series. Hence, the same amount of current will flow through both windings.

The series field winding takes similar current to the rated armature current. therefore, the
series field winding made with fewer turns of thick wire, which has very low resistance in
terms of 0.5 ohms.

The circuit diagram of the series wound DC machine is as shown in the below figure.

The series DC motor used where high starting torque required and variation of speed is
possible. It used in the traction system, vacuum cleaner, cranes, air-conditioner, sewing
machine, etc.

DC series generator used in DC locomotive for the regenerative breaking for providing field
excitation current. It used as a booster in distribution networks.

Compound wound DC Machine

The compound wound machine has two field windings; one field winding connected in
series and another connected in parallel with the armature winding.

The series field winding has a smaller number of turns with a larger cross-section area. And
the shunt field winding has a greater number of turns with small cross-section area.

There are two types of compound wound DC machine; short-shunt compound machine and
long-shunt compound machine.
Short-shunt Compound DC Machine
If the shunt field winding connected in parallel only with armature winding, the machine
called a short-shunt compound machine. This DC machine is also known as a cumulative
compound DC machine.

Cumulative compound motors give high starting torque similar to the series motor and also
give good speed regulation at high speed similar to the shunt motor. It can start with a large
load and if the load changes it will run smoothly.

This motor has advantages of both series and shunt motors. Hence, this motor is widely
used. The circuit diagram is as shown in the below figure.

Long-shunt Compound DC Machine

The shunt field winding is parallel with both armature and series field winding. This machine
is also known as a differential compound DC machine.

In differential compound motors, a magnetic field of shunt winding is opposing the

magnetic field of armature winding and the series field. This motor has a different speed-
torque characteristic.

When the load reduced, differential compound motor

behaves more like a series motor and tends to over
speed. When the load is increased, its speed reduced
drastically.
Applications of DC Motors
The main applications of the three types of direct current motors are given below.

Series Motors

The series DC motors are used where high starting torque is required and variations in
speed are possible. For example – the series motors are used in the traction system, cranes,
air compressors, Vaccum Cleaner, Sewing machine, etc.

Shunt Motors

The shunt motors are used where constant speed is required and starting conditions are not
severe. The various applications of DC shunt motor are in Lathe Machines, Centrifugal
Pumps, Fans, Blowers, Conveyors, Lifts, Weaving Machine, Spinning machines, etc.

Compound Motors

The compound motors are used where higher starting torque and fairly constant speed is
required. The examples of usage of compound motors are in Presses, Shears, Conveyors,
Elevators, Rolling Mills, Heavy Planners, etc.

The small DC machines whose ratings are in fractional kilowatt are mainly used as control
device such in techno generators for speed sensing and in servo motors for positioning and
tracking.

Applications of DC Generators
The applications of the various types of DC Generators are as follows:-

Separately Excited DC Generators

• Separately excited DC Generators are used in laboratories for testing as they have a
wide range of voltage output.
• Used as a supply source of DC motors.
Shunt wound Generators

• DC shunt-wound generators are used for lighting purposes.

• Used to charge the battery.
• Providing excitation to the alternators.
Series Wound Generators

• DC series wound generators are used in DC locomotives for regenerative braking for
providing field excitation current.
 • Used as a booster in distribution networks.
• Over compounded cumulative generators are used in lighting and heavy power supply.
• Flat compounded generators are used in offices, hotels, homes, schools, etc.
• Differentially compounded generators are mainly used for arc welding purpose.

Synchronous Motor
Definition: The motor which runs at synchronous speed is known as the
synchronous motor. The synchronous speed is the constant speed at which the
motor generates the electromotive force. The synchronous motor is used for
converting the electrical energy into mechanical energy.

Main Features of Synchronous Motor

• The speed of the synchronous motor is independent of the load, i.e., the variation of
the load does not affect the speed of the motor.
• The synchronous motor is not self-starting. The prime mover is used for rotating the
motor at its synchronous speed.
• The synchronous motor operates both for leading and lagging power factor.
 Parallel Operation on AC Generator

Alternator is really an AC generator. In alternator, an EMF is induced in the stator (stationary

wire) with the influence of rotating magnetic field (rotor) due to Faraday’s law of induction.
Due to the synchronous speed of rotation of field poles, it is also known as synchronous
generator.
Here, we can discuss about parallel operation of alternator. When the AC power systems
are interconnected for efficiency, the alternators should also have to be connected in
parallel. There will be more than two alternators connected in parallel in generating
stations.
Synchronizing Condition for Parallel Operation of Alternator
There are some conditions to be satisfied for parallel operation of the alternator. Before
entering into that, we should understand some terms which are as follows.
• The process of connecting two alternators or an alternator and an infinite bus bar
system in parallel is known as synchronizing.
• Running machine is the machine which carries the load.
• Incoming machine is the alternator or machine which has to be connected in parallel
with the system.
The conditions to be satisfied are

1. The phase sequence of the incoming machine voltage and the bus bar voltage should
be identical.
2. The RMS line voltage (terminal voltage) of the bus bar or already running machine
and the incoming machine should be the same.
3. The phase angle of the two systems should be equal.
4. The frequency of the two terminal voltages (incoming machine and the bus bar)
should be nearly the same. Large power transients will occur when frequencies are not
nearly equal.
Departure from the above conditions will result in the formation of power surges and current.
It also results in unwanted electro-mechanical oscillation of rotor which leads to the damage
of equipment.
 Advantages of Parallel Operating Alternators
• When there is maintenance or an inspection, one machine can be taken out
from service and the other alternators can keep up for the continuity of
supply.
• Load supply can be increased.
• During light loads, more than one alternator can be shut down while the
other will operate in nearly full load.
• High efficiency.
• The operating cost is reduced.
• Ensures the protection of supply and enables cost-effective generation.
• The generation cost is reduced.
• Breaking down of a generator does not cause any interruption in the supply.
• Reliability of the whole power system increases.

Parallel Operation of DC Generator - Conditions & Advantages

Conditions for Parallel Operation of Dc Generator :

To connects the generators in parallel to common bus-bars, the generators should satisfy

the following conditions.

1. The incoming generator's voltage should be the same as the bus-bar voltage.

2. The +ve and -ve terminals (i.e. polarity) of generators must be connected to +ve and -ve
of bus-bars (otherwise a serious short-circuit will occur).

3. Equalizer bar should be used for compound and series generators.

4. Induced [Link] of generators should be preferably the same (otherwise circulating

currents result).

The Major Advantages of Many Units Operating in Parallel are :

The advantages of parallel operation of dc generators are,
1. Continuity of service
If a single large generator is used in the power plant, then in case of its breakdown, the
whole plant will be shut down.
However, if power is supplied from a number of small units operating in parallel, then in
case of failure of one unit, the continuity of supply can be maintained by other healthy
units.

2. Efficiency
Generators run most efficiently when loaded to their rated capacity. Electric power costs
less per kWh when the generator producing it is efficiently loaded.
Therefore, when load demand on power plant decreases, one or more generators can
be shut down and the remaining units can be efficiently loaded.

3. Maintenance and repair

Generators generally require routine-maintenance and repair. Therefore, if generators
are operated in parallel, the routine or emergency operations can be performed by
isolating the affected generator while the load is being supplied by other units. This
leads to both safety and economy.

4. Increasing plant capacity

In the modern world of increasing population, the use of electricity is continuously
increasing. When added capacity is required, the new unit can be simply paralleled with
the old units.

5. Non-availability of a single large unit

In many situations, a single unit of desired large capacity may not be available. In that
case, a number of smaller units can be operated in parallel to meet the load
requirement. Generally, a single large unit is more expensive.
 Power Flow Diagram of DC Generator and DC Motor
The Power Flow Diagram is used to determine the efficiency of a generator or
motor. In the below figure of power flow diagram of DC Generator, it is shown
that initially the mechanical power is given as an input which is converted into
electrical power, and the output is obtained in the form of electrical power. There
are various losses such as friction, windage, stray losses and core losses.

The power flow diagram of DC Generator is shown below:

Power
Flow Diagram of a DC Generator

In a DC Generator, the input is the mechanical power. The power input is given
by the equation shown below.

Where,

ωm is the angular speed of the armature in radian per second.

Ʈapp is the applied torque in Newton-meter

The sum of stray losses, mechanical losses and core losses are subtracted from
the input power, i.e. Pin to get the net mechanical power converted to electrical
power by Electro-Mechanical conversion.

Where
Ʈe is the electromagnetic torque. The resulting electric power produced is given
by the equation:

The net electrical power output is obtained by subtracting electrical power I 2R

losses and brush losses from Pconv.

Where,

VT is the terminal voltage, and IL is the current delivered to the load.

The power flow diagram of DC Motor is shown below:

From the power flow diagram of DC Motor, it is clear that the input which is given to the
motor is in the electrical form which is converted into mechanical power in the second
stage. The output is in the form of mechanical power.

In a DC motor, the input electrical power Pin is given by the equation shown below:

Power output is given by the equation shown below.

Also,

Where,

ƮL is the load torque in Newton-meter

Thus, the power flow diagram gives an overview, that how one form of energy is converted
into another form.
Losses In A DC Generator And DC Motor
A dc generator converts mechanical power into electrical power and a dc motor converts
electrical power into mechanical power. Thus, for a dc generator, input power is in the form
of mechanical and the output power is in the form of electrical. On the other hand, for a dc
motor, input power is in the form of electrical and output power is in the form of mechanical.
In a practical machine, whole of the input power cannot be converted into output power as
some power is lost in the conversion process. This causes the efficiency of the machine to
be reduced. Efficiency is the ratio of output power to the input power. Thus, in order to
design rotating dc machines (or any electrical machine) with higher efficiency, it is important
to study the losses occurring in them. Various losses in a rotating DC machine (DC
generator or DC motor) can be characterized as follows:

Losses In A Rotating DC Machine

▪ Copper losses
▪ Armature Cu loss
▪ Field Cu loss
▪ Loss due to brush contact resistance
▪ Iron Losses
▪ Hysteresis loss
▪ Eddy current loss
▪ Mechanical losses
▪ Friction loss
▪ Windage loss
The above tree categorizes various types of losses that occur in a dc generator or a dc
motor. Each of these is explained in details below.

Copper Losses
These losses occur in armature and field copper windings. Copper losses consist of
Armature copper loss, Field copper loss and loss due to brush contact resistance.

Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra (where, Ia = Armature current and Ra= Armature
resistance)
This loss contributes about 30 to 40% to full load losses. The armature copper loss is
variable and depends upon the amount of loading of the machine.

Field copper loss = If2Rf (where, If = field current and Rf = field resistance)
In the case of a shunt wounded field, field copper loss is practically constant. It contributes
about 20 to 30% to full load losses.
Brush contact resistance also contributes to the copper losses. Generally, this loss is
included into armature copper loss.

Iron Losses (Core Losses)

As the armature core is made of iron and it rotates in a magnetic field, a small current gets
induced in the core itself too. Due to this current, eddy current loss and hysteresis
loss occur in the armature iron core. Iron losses are also called as Core losses or
magnetic losses.

Hysteresis loss is due to the reversal of magnetization of the armature core. When the core
passes under one pair of poles, it undergoes one complete cycle of magnetic reversal. The
frequency of magnetic reversal is given by, f=P.N/120 (where, P = no. of poles and N =
Speed in rpm)
The loss depends upon the volume and grade of the iron, frequency of magnetic reversals
and value of flux density. Hysteresis loss is given by, Steinmetz formula:
Wh=ηBmax fV1.6
(watts)
where, η = Steinmetz hysteresis constant
V = volume of the core in m3

Eddy current loss: When the armature core rotates in the magnetic field, an emf is also
induced in the core (just like it induces in armature conductors), according to the Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction. Though this induced emf is small, it causes a large current
to flow in the body due to the low resistance of the core. This current is known as eddy
current. The power loss due to this current is known as eddy current loss.

Mechanical Losses

Mechanical losses consist of the losses due to friction in bearings and commutator. Air
friction loss of rotating armature also contributes to these.
These losses are about 10 to 20% of full load losses.

Stray Losses

In addition to the losses stated above, there may be small losses present which are called as
stray losses or miscellaneous losses. These losses are difficult to account. They are usually
due to inaccuracies in the designing and modeling of the machine. Most of the times, stray
losses are assumed to be 1% of the full load.
Switched Reluctance Motor:
An electric motor like SRM (switched reluctance motor) runs through reluctance torque.
Different from the types of common brushed DC motor, power can be transmitted to
windings within the stator instead of the rotor. An alternate name of this motor is VRM
(Variable Reluctance Motor). For a better operation of this motor, it uses a switching
inverter. The control characteristics of this motor are the same as dc motors which
electronically commutated. These motors are applicable where sizing, as well as horsepower
(hp) to weight, is critical.

This motor simplifies its mechanical design to

restrict the flow of current toward a rotary part;
however, it complicates the design because some
kind of switching system must be employed to
transmit the power toward the different windings.
This mechanical design can also be used for a
generator. The load can be switched toward the
coils within the sequence to coordinate the flow of
current through the rotation. So these generators
can also run at high speed as compared with
conventional types of motors because the
armature is made like a single piece of
magnetizable material like a slotted cylinder.

Working Principle
The working principle of the switched reluctance motor is, it works on the principle of
variable reluctance that means, the rotor of this motor constantly tries to align through the
lowest reluctance lane.

The formation of the rotary magnetic field can be done using the circuit of power
electronics switching. In this, the magnetic circuit’s reluctance can mainly depend on the air
gap. Therefore, by modifying the air gap among the rotor as well as a stator, we can also
modify the reluctance of this motor.

Here, reluctance can be defined as resistance toward the magnetic flux. For Electrical
circuits, reluctance is the combination of resistance as well as the magnetic circuit.
Switched Reluctance Motor Characteristics
The characteristics of the switched reluctance motor include the following.

• This kind of reluctance motor is a 1-phase or 3-phase

• Speed control of this motor is simple.
• The triggering circuit can be changed to get high speed
• It operates with a DC supply once used with an inverter.
• Once the firing angle of any switching device can be changed then different speeds can
be achieved.
• Control of one phase is independent of the other two phases.
• The unutilized energy fed to the motor can be retrieved by using the feedback diodes.
This improves efficiency.
Advantages
The advantages of a switched reluctance motor include the following.
• These motors are very simple & the rotors in this motor are extremely strong
• These motors are applicable for high-speed applications.
• The VFDs (variable frequency drives) of this motor are somewhat simpler as compared
with conventional VFDs.
• This motor doesn’t use any additional ventilation system when the stator, as well as rotor
slots, is projected. So the airflow can be maintained among the slots.
• These are less expensive because of the nonexistence of permanent magnets.
• Fault tolerance is high
• This motor works with a simple two-phase or three-phase pulse generator.
• Phase losses do not change the operation of the motor.
• Once the phase sequence is changed then the motor direction will be changed.
• Inertia Ratio or High Torque
• Self-starting without using additional arrangements
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of a switched reluctance motor include the following.
• Switched reluctance motors have less torque capacity & normally these motors are noisy.
• While operating this motor at high speed, it creates a torque ripple.
• High noise level
• It uses an external rotor position sensor
• These are applicable for medium to high speed, low-cost applications wherever
controllability & shaft or noise torque ripple are not dangerous.
• This motor generates harmonics when it operates at high speed, so to reduce this, large
size capacitors need to install.
• Since the nonexistence of a permanent magnet, the SRM has to carry a high i/p current
to increase the necessity of converter KVA.
Applications
The applications of switched reluctance motors include the following.
• These types of motors are used as an alternative for induction motors in different
applications wherever the operating conditions of this motor do not suit them.
• In textile machinery like towel looms, rapier looms, etc
• Used in electric vehicles
• Oilfield machinery like beam pumps, vertical pumps, well testing machinery, etc.
• Mining machinery like conveyors, shearers, winches, ball mills, boring machines, coal
crushers, etc.
• Used in all kinds of mechanical presses like screw presses.
These motors are used in miscellaneous applications which include the following.

• Machine tools like vertical lathes, planers, drilling machines, etc.

• Coil winding as well as unwinding equipment
• General machinery like pumps, fans, compressors, etc.
• Equipment used in paper mills
• Machinery used for food mixing
• Rolling mill for metals
• Lifting machines such as winches, lifts, conveyors, etc
• Manufacturing of plastic-like extrusion, injection molding devices
• Power generation device like load control using wind turbine rotor blade
• Used in domestic appliances like vacuum cleaners, washing machines, fans, etc.
Linear Induction Motor
A Linear Induction Motor (or LIM) is a special
type of induction motor used to achieve rectilinear
motion rather than rotational motion as in the case
of conventional motors. Linear induction motors are
quite an engineering marvel, to convert a general
motor for a special purpose with more or less
similar working principle, thus enhancing its
versatility of operation. Let us first look into the
construction of a linear induction motor.

Working Principle of Linear Induction Motor

When the primary of a LIM gets excited by a balanced three-phase power supply, a flux starts
traveling along the entire length of the primary. This linearly traveling magnetic field is
equivalent to the rotating magnetic field in the stator of a three phase induction motor or a
synchronous motor. Electric current gets induced in the conductors of the secondary due to
the relative motion between the traveling flux and the conductors. Then the induced current
interacts with the traveling flux wave to produce linear force or thrust.

If the primary is fixed and the secondary is free to move, the force will pull the secondary in
the direction of the force and will result in the required rectilinear motion. When we give
supply to the system the developed field will result in a linear traveling field, the velocity of
which is given by the equation,

Where fs is the supply frequency in Hz, Vs is the velocity of the linear traveling field in meter
per second, and t is the linear pole pitch i.e. pole to pole linear distance in meter.

For the same reason as in the case of an induction motor, the secondary or runner cannot
catch the speed of the magnetic field. Hence there will be a slip. For a slip of s, the speed of
the linear induction motor will be

Application of Linear Induction Motor

A linear induction motor is not that widespread compared to a conventional motor, taking
its economic aspects and versatility of usage into consideration. But there are quite a few
instances where the LIM is indeed necessary for some specialized operations.
Few of such applications are listed below.
1. Automatic sliding doors in electric trains.
2. Mechanical handling equipment, such as propulsion of a train of tubs along a certain route.
3. Metallic conveyor belts.
4. Pumping of liquid metal, material handling in cranes, etc.
Single-phase motor:
Single-phase induction motors are the simple motors which operate on single -
phase A.C. and in which torque is produced due to induction of electricity caused
by the alternating magnetic fields.

Working Principle of Single Phase Induction Motor

NOTE: We know that for the working of any electrical motor whether its AC or DC motor, we
require two fluxes as the interaction of these two fluxes produced the required torque.
When we apply a single phase AC supply to the stator winding of single phase induction
motor, the alternating current starts flowing through the stator or main winding. This
alternating current produces an alternating flux called main flux. This main flux also links
with the rotor conductors and hence cut the rotor conductors.
According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf gets induced in the rotor.
As the rotor circuit is closed one so, the current starts flowing in the rotor. This current is
called the rotor current. This rotor current produces its flux called rotor flux. Since this flux is
produced due to the induction principle so, the motor working on this principle got its name
as an induction motor. Now there are two fluxes one is main flux, and another is called rotor
flux. These two fluxes produce the desired torque which is required by the motor to rotate.

Applications of Single Phase Induction Motor

These motors find use in fans, refrigerators, Air-conditioners, Vacuum cleaners,
washing machines, centrifugal pumps, tools, small farming appliances, blowers
etc….These are mostly used for low power but constant speed devices such as
agricultural tools and machinery where three -phase supply are not available.
1/400 kW to 1/25 kW motors are used in toys, hair dryers, etc…
Servo Motor:
A servo motor is a type of motor that can rotate with great precision. Normally this type of
motor consists of a control circuit that provides feedback on the current position of the
motor shaft, this feedback allows the servo motors to rotate with great precision. If you
want to rotate an object at some specific angles or distance, then you use a servo motor. It
is just made up of a simple motor which runs through a servo mechanism. If motor is
powered by a DC power supply then it is called DC servo motor, and if it is AC-powered
motor then it is called AC servo motor.

Working of a Servo Motor

Servo Motor consists of a DC Motor, a Gear system, a position sensor, and a control
circuit. The DC motors get powered from a battery and run at high speed and low torque.
The Gear and shaft assembly connected to the DC motors lower this speed into sufficient
speed and higher torque. The position sensor senses the position of the shaft from its
definite position and feeds the information to the control circuit. The control circuit
accordingly decodes the signals from the position sensor and compares the actual position
of the motors with the desired position and accordingly controls the direction of rotation of
the DC motor to get the required position. Servo Motor generally requires a DC supply of
4.8V to 6 V.

Advantages:

• If a heavy load is placed on the motor, the driver will increase the current to the motor
coil as it attempts to rotate the motor. There is no out-of-step condition.
• High-speed operation is possible.

Disadvantages:

• Since the servomotor tries to rotate according to the command pulses but lags, it is not
suitable for precision control of rotation.
• Higher cost.
• When stopped, the motor’s rotor continues to move back and forth one pulse, so that it
is not suitable if you need to prevent vibration
Applications of Servo Motors
Servomotors are used in applications requiring rapid variations in speed without
the motor getting overheated.

• In Industries they are used in machine tools, packaging, factory automation, material
handling, printing converting, assembly lines, and many other demanding applications
robotics, CNC machinery, or automated manufacturing.
• They are also used in radio-controlled airplanes to control the positioning and movement
of elevators.
• They are used in robots because of their smooth switching on and off and accurate
positioning.
• They are also used by the aerospace industry to maintain hydraulic fluid in their hydraulic
systems.
• They are used in many radio controlled toys.
• They are used in electronic devices such as DVDs or Blue-ray Disc players to extend or
replay the disc trays.
• They are also being used in automobiles to maintain the speed of vehicles.

Universal Motor
This is a special kind of motor and this motor works on single AC supply otherwise DC
supply. Universal motors are series wound where the field and armature windings are
connected in series and thus generates high starting torque. These motors are mainly
designed for operating at high-speed above 3500 rpm. They utilize AC supply at low-speed
and DC supply of similar voltage.

Stepper Motor:

Stepper Motor is a brushless electromechanical device which converts the train of electric
pulses applied at their excitation windings into precisely defined step-by-step mechanical
shaft rotation. The shaft of the motor rotates through a fixed angle for each discrete pulse.
This rotation can be linear or [Link] gets one step movement for a single pulse input.
Advantages
The advantages of stepper motor include the following.
• Ruggedness
• Simple construction
• Can work in an open-loop control system
• Maintenance is low
• It works in any situation
• Reliability is high
• The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.
• The motor has full torque at standstill.
• Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good stepper motors have an
accuracy of 3 – 5% of a step and this error is noncumulative from one step to the next.
• Excellent response to starting, stopping, and reversing.
• Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the life of the
motor is simply dependant on the life of the bearing.
• The motor’s response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making the
motor simpler and less costly to control.
• It is possible to achieve very low-speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly
coupled to the shaft.
• A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is proportional to the
frequency of the input pulses.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of stepper motor include the following.
• Efficiency is low
• The Torque of a motor will declines fast with speed
• Accuracy is low
• Feedback is not used for specifying potential missed steps
• Small Torque toward Inertia Ratio
• Extremely Noisy
• If the motor is not controlled properly then resonances can occur
• Operation of this motor is not easy at very high speeds.
• The dedicated control circuit is necessary
• As compared with DC motors, it uses more current

Applications
The applications of stepper motor include the following.
1. Industrial Machines – Stepper motors are used in automotive gauges and machine
tooling automated production equipment.
2. Security – new surveillance products for the security industry.
3. Medical – Stepper motors are used inside medical scanners, samplers, and also found
inside digital dental photography, fluid pumps, respirators, and blood analysis machinery.
4. Consumer Electronics – Stepper motors in cameras for automatic digital camera focus
and zoom functions.
Types of Losses in a Transformer
There are various types of losses in the transformer such as iron loss, copper loss, hysteresis
loss, eddy current loss, stray loss, and dielectric loss. The hysteresis losses occur because of
the variation of the magnetization in the core of the transformer and the copper loss occurs
because of the transformer winding resistance.

Iron Losses

Iron losses are caused by the alternating flux in the core of the transformer as this loss
occurs in the core it is also known as Core loss. Iron loss is further divided into hysteresis
and eddy current loss.

Hysteresis Loss

The core of the transformer is subjected to an alternating magnetizing force, and for each
cycle of emf, a hysteresis loop is traced out. Power is dissipated in the form of heat known
as hysteresis loss.

Eddy Current Loss

When the flux links with a closed circuit, an emf is induced in the circuit and the current
flows, the value of the current depends upon the amount of emf around the circuit and the
resistance of the circuit.

Since the core is made of conducting material, these EMFs circulate currents within the
body of the material. These circulating currents are called Eddy Currents. They will occur
when the conductor experiences a changing magnetic field. As these currents are not
responsible for doing any useful work, and it produces a loss (I2R loss) in the magnetic
material known as an Eddy Current Loss.
The eddy current loss is minimized by making the core with thin laminations.
Copper Loss Or Ohmic Loss

These losses occur due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. If I1 and I2 are the
primary and the secondary current. R1 and R2 are the resistance of primary and secondary
winding then the copper losses occurring in the primary and secondary winding will be
I12R1 and I22R2 respectively.

Therefore, the total copper losses will be

These losses varied according to the load and known hence it is also known as variable
losses. Copper losses vary as the square of the load current.

Stray Loss

The occurrence of these stray losses is due to the presence of leakage field. The percentage
of these losses is very small as compared to the iron and copper losses so they can be
neglected.

Dielectric Loss

Dielectric loss occurs in the insulating material of the transformer that is in the oil of the
transformer, or in the solid insulations. When the oil gets deteriorated or the solid insulation
gets damaged, or its quality decreases, and because of this, the efficiency of the transformer
gets affected.