ENG 2159: ENGINEERING WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY

LECTURE 1:
ELECTRICITY BASICS AND RESISTORS

Outline
1. Electricity Basics
2. Resistors
3. Basic D.C analysis

Instructor: George ZIBA

Email: [Link]@[Link]
0976854627
1
 What is Electricity?

Electricity has something to do with electrons

Electrons are fundamental particles and make up atoms, together
with neutrons and protons.

Atoms make up all physical matter

Electrons are among the smallest particles and cannot be seen
individually, even with the strongest microscope.

The atomic model of Niels Bohr:

Practically all mass is in the core (protons and neutrons).

Electrons are very small and light and circle around the core at close
to light speed.

Electrons and protons have electric charge: protons positive (+) and
electrons negative (-).

Like charges repel and different charges attract each other.

2
 Electrons in metals

In a metal the atoms are arranged in a regular grid, called a lattice.


The electrons that are furthest away from the atom cores are relatively
loosely connected and can easily move around throughout the material.
These are called free electrons.


When an electric field is applied, the electrons drift from one side to another.


This movement of charged particles is electric current.

In general, electric current is the movement of electric charge.

3
 Electrons in metals

This can only happen if there is a path to move around (closed circuit):
electric charge is very incompressible, like water in a closed circuit of pipes,
it needs to flow around at the same rate everywhere in the circuit.


Charge is conserved, it cannot be created or destroyed.


Most metals are good conductors. Insulators are materials with very few free
electrons, so they do not conduct electricity.


When talking about charge in a circuit, we use positive charge (for
convenience), even though electrons are negative. Charge moving to the left
is the same as electrons moving to the right.

4
 Basic electrical quantities - Voltage

When charge moves around a circuit, there are driving
forces, such as generators and batteries, that pump the
charge around, like water is pumped around a circuit by a
mechanical pump. The electrical driving force is called the
EMF (electromotive force).

A water pump can pump up the water to a higher altitude,
giving the water more potential energy. In the same way
the EMF in a battery or generator drives the electrical
charge to a higher potential energy level.

The charge is in coulombs (C)

The potential energy is in joules (J) just as any
other form of energy

The voltage or PD is expressed in volts (V)

The EMF that pushes the charge up is also
expressed in volts
5
 Basic electrical quantities - Voltage

The voltage, also called potential difference (PD), is
defined as the amount of potential energy received by one
unit charge from the EMF while flowing through the
battery or generator, from the bottom of the circuit (- of
the battery) to the top (+ of the battery).


In the rest of the circuit the charge flows down to a lower
potential again and loses its potential energy, just like
water flowing down a river.

The charge is in coulombs (C)

The potential energy is in joules (J) just as any
other form of energy

The voltage or PD is expressed in volts (V)

The EMF that pushes the charge up is also
expressed in volts

6
 Measuring Voltages

The idea here is that you measure the PDs across the
three resistors (and also try other components)

No matter which values of resistors or other
components, the voltages always add up to the input
voltage (from the battery or power supply)

This leads to Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Going around a loop in a circuit, the total voltages add
up to zero (PD across the source is counted negative):

-V1-V2 - V3 +Vin = 0

One can also say: the energy gained in the battery is
distributed over the three components (loads) by the
charge on its way down

7
 Basic electrical quantities - Current

Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charge past a point (or through a cross-section
of a wire).

In most practical cases, an electric current

is a flow of electrons flowing through wires

and components, but we use the direction

of conventional current: flow of positive

charge.

The unit of current is the ampere (A).

I = Q/t (I = current (A), Q = charge (C), t = time (s)

8
Current measurements

Left: current going in = current coming out
(LED)

Right: currents in branches add up to total
current

Conservation of charge

Kichhoff’s Current Law (KCL):

Total net current entering a node is zero

I2 + I 3 - I 1 = 0

(all currents counted positive when directed
towards the node)

Also learning how to measure current with
the DMM

9
 Series and parallel

There is a symmetry between

voltage and current:

With components connected

in series:

the current is the same in all, and

the voltage across them adds up

With components connected in parallel:

the voltage across them is the same for all, and IR1 = IR2

the currents through them add up IR3 = IR4
VR1+VR2 = VR3+VR4 = Vs
10
 Basic electrical quantities - Resistance

Electrical resistance is a measure of the potential difference between two points (nodes) in a circuit, per
unit of current flowing through the components between those nodes:

resistance = voltage/current: R = V/I

This is the famous Ohm's Law

the unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω)

There are different ways to think about resistance:

how hard it is for current to flow through a component or wire: I = V/R

how much PD is needed to push a current through a component or wire:

V = I*R

11
 Origin of resistance

Where does resistance come from?

Electrons in a conductor bumping against the atom cores and losing speed (=energy), giving energy
to the atom cores: heating them up

Compare with a brick sliding down a slope: it loses energy through friction

Different materials have different conductivity:

12
 Electrical Power

Power in terms of voltage and current

Power is defined as the amount of energy that is generated, transferred, delivered or used per second:

P = E/t

but E = Q.V and I = Q/t

Combining the equations gives: P = V·I This is the Power Equation

The SI unit of power is the watt (W), which is joules per second (J/s)

To calculate the power delivered to a component in a circuit, we just need to know the current through it and
the voltage (PD) across it.

Likewise, with a power source, we can determine how much power the source delivers by measuring the
voltage (EMF) and current.

With Ohm’s Law, we can derive that power dissipated in a resistor is equal to:

P = I2·R = V2/R 13
ELECTRICAL RESISTORS

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 Resistors

Resistors:
Circuit symbol:
Function:
-Restrict flow of electric current, e.g resistor is placed in series
with LED to limit current passing through LED
Connection and Soldering:
-Connection is either way round
-Not damaged by heat when soldering
Units:
-ohms 
-1 is very small, so resistor values are often given in kilo-ohm
k and mega-ohm M
-1k = 1000
-1M = 1000k =1000000

15
 Characteristics of Resistors
 The two main characteristics of a resistor are its resistance,
R, in ohms and its power rating, P, in Watts.

 The resistance, R, provides the required reduction in

current
or the desired drop in voltage.

 The wattage rating indicates the amount of power the

resistor
can safely dissipate as heat.

 The wattage rating is always more than the actual amount

of power dissipated by the resistor, as a safety factor.

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 Characteristics of Resistors
• The heat generated by or current flowing
through the resistor determines how big the
component should be. They range from tiny
1/8 W types to the much bigger 2W types,
that are about 2 cm long.
• Power resistors, especially made to handle
larger powers are usually much bigger.
• A resistor's power rating can usually be
deduced by observing its package size.

17
 Types of Resistors
Axial resistors: have(physical)
two leads that emerge from opposite ends of a usually cylindrical body.

Radial resistors: have parallel leads emerging from one side of the body and are unusual.

Precision resistors: are generally defined as having a tolerance of no more than plus-or-minus 1%.

General-purpose resistors: are less stable, and their value is less precise.

Power resistors: are generally defined as dissipating 1 or 2 watts or more, particularly in power
supplies or power amplifiers. They are physically larger and may require heat sinks or fan cooling.

Wire-wound resistors: are used where the component must withstand substantial heat.

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 Types of Resistors
(make)
 Types of Resistors
 Wire-wound resistors
 Carbon-composition resistors
 Film-type resistors
 Carbon film
 Metal film
 Surface-mount resistors (chip
resistors)
 Fusible resistors
 Thermistors

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 Types of
Resistors
 Wire Wound Resistor
 Special resistance wire is wrapped around
an insulating core, typically porcelain,
cement, or pressed paper.
 The wire is usually a nickel-chromium
alloy known as nichrome (sometimes
written as Ni-chrome) and is dipped in a
protecting coating.
 These resistors are typically used for
high-current applications with low
resistance and appreciable power.
 Wire-wound resistors are also used in
3D printers to melt plastic (or some
other compound)that forms the solid
output of the device

20
 Types of
 Resistors
Carbon Composition
Resistors
 Made of carbon or graphite mixed with a
powdered insulating material.
 Metal caps with tinned copper wire
(called axial leads) are joined to the
ends of the carbon resistance
[Link] are used for soldering the
connections into a circuit.
 The density of the carbon determines
the end-to-end resistance, which
typically ranges from 5Ω to 10M.
 The disadvantages of this system are
low precision (a 10% tolerance is
common). However, carbon-composite
resistors are relatively tolerant of
overload conditions.
 Becoming obsolete because of the Carbon resistors with the same physical size but
development of carbon-film resistors. different resistance values. The physical size
indicates a power rating of 0.5 W.

21
 Types of
Resistors
Carbon Film Resistors
 Compared to carbon composition
resistors, carbon-film resistors have
tighter tolerances, are less sensitive to
temperature changes and aging, and
generate less noise.
 made by coating a ceramic
substrate with a film of carbon
compound
 The range of resistor values is
comparable with carbon
composite types, but the Construction of a carbon film resistor.
precision is increased, typically
to 5%

22
 Types of
Resistors
 Metal Film Resistors
 Metal film resistors have very
tight tolerances, are less
sensitive to temperature
changes and aging, and
generate less noise compared
to carbon film ones. Tolerances
of 5%, 2% and 1% are available.

Construction of a metal film resistor.

23
 Types of Resistors

 Surface-Mount Resistors
(also called chip resistors)
 These resistors are:
 Temperature-stable and rugged
 Their end electrodes are soldered
directly to a circuit board.
 Much smaller than conventional
resistors with axial leads.
 Power dissipation rating is usually
1/8
to ¼ W

Typical chip resistors.

24
 Types of
Resistors
 Fusible Resistors:
 Fusible resistors are wire-wound resistors made to
burn open easily when the power rating is
[Link] serve a dual function as both a fuse
and a resistor.

25
 Types of
Resistors
 Thermistors:
 Thermistors are
temperature-sensitive
resistors whose resistance
value changes with changes
in operating temperature.
 Used in electronic circuits
where temperature
measurement, control,
and compensation are
desired.
Typical thermistor shapes and sizes.
26
 Resistor Color
Coding
 Carbon resistors are small, so their R
value in ohms is marked using a
color- coding system.

 Colors represent numerical values.

 Coding is standardized by the Electronic

Industries Alliance (EIA).
27
 Resistor Color
Coding Color Code
 Resistor Color Code
0 Black
1 Brown
2 Red
3 Orange
4 Yellow
5 Green
6 Blue
7 Violet
8 Gray
How to read color stripes on carbon
resistors for R in ohms. 9 White
28
 Resistor Color Coding
 Resistors under 10 Ω:
 The multiplier band is either gold or
silver.
 For gold, multiply by 0.1.
 For silver, multiply by 0.01.

Examples of color-coded R values, with percent tolerance.

29
 Resistor Color
Coding
 Applying the Gold = 5%
Color Code 5

 The amount by 5% of 4700 = 235

which the actual R 4700 - 235 =
Yellow = 4
can differ from the 4465
4700 + 235 =
color-coded value 4935
is its tolerance. Violet = 7
Tolerance is usually Red = 2
stated in
The actual value can range from 4465 to 4935
percentages. .

4700
4700
4 is the nominal


00 value.

30
 Resistor Color Coding
 What is the nominal value and permissible ohmic
range for each resistor shown?

1 k (950 to 1050 )

390  (370.5 to 409.5 )

22 k (20.9 to 23.1 k)

1 M (950 k to 1.05 M)

31
 Resistor Color
Coding
 Five-Band Color Code
 Precision resistors often use
a five-band code to obtain
more accurate R values.
 The first three stripes indicate
the first 3 digits in the R value.
 The fourth stripe is the
multiplier.
 The tolerance is given by the
fifth stripe. Five-band code.
 Brown = 1%
 Red = 2%
 Green = 0.5%
 Blue = 0.25%
 Violet = 0.1%.
32
 Resistor Color
Coding
 Zero-Ohm Resistor
 Has zero ohms of resistance.
 Used for connecting two
points on a printed-
circuit board.
 Body has a single black
band
around it.
 Wattage ratings are typically
1/8- or 1/4-watt.
A zero-ohm resistor is indicated by a
single black color band around the
body of the resistor.

33
 Chip Resistor Coding
System
 Body color is usually white or off-white
 End terminals are C-shaped
 Three (four) digits on the body or on the film
 First 2 (3) digits indicate the first two (three) numbers
 Third (fourth) digit indicates the multiplier
 Are available in tolerances of ±1% ±5% but tolerances
are not indicated on the chip
 The letter R is used to signify a decimal point for
values between 1 to 10 ohms (1R5 means 1.5 ohms)

34
 Resistors

Example:
Resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros),
and gold bands.
Which means 270000 =270k
On circuit diagrams the  is usually ommitted
and the value is written 270K

Resistor Circuit Symbol

270K

35
 Resistors

Tolerance of Resistors (4th band of color code):

 tolerance is shown by 4th band of color code
Tolerance is precision of resistor
It is given as %
Example: 390 resistor with tolerance of 10% have
value within 10% of 390, between 390-39=351 and
390+39=429 (39 is 10% of 390).
 Special colour Code is used for 4th Band tolerance
-Silver = 10%, Gold = 5%, red =  2%, Brown = 
1%
-No 4th band shown, tolerance is  20%
Tolerance may be ignored for almost all ccts because
precise R values are rarely required.

36
 Resistors

Resistor Shorthand:
 Resistor values are often written on cct diagrams
using a code system which avoids using a decimal
point because it is easy to miss the small dot.
 Letters R, K, M are used in place of decimal point
 To read code: replace letter with a decimal point
 Then multiplier the value by
-1.0 if letter is R
-1000 if letter is K
-1000000 if letter is M

37
 Resistors

Example:
-560R means 560
-2K7 means 2.7k = 2700
-39K means 39k = 39000
-1M0 means 1.0M = 1000k

38
 Resistors

Real Resistor Values (E6 / E12 Series):

Not all sizes of resistors are made
Standard value resisitors are based on series which follow same
pattern for every multiple.
E6 Series:
-6 values for each multiple of ten, for Rs with 20%
tolerance
-10,15,22,33,47,68,.then it continues
100,150,220,330,470,680, 1000 etc
-step size increases as values increases
E12 Series: most frequently used for R
-12 values for each multiple of ten, R with 10% tolerance
-10,12,15,18,22,27,33,39,47,56,68,82,..then 100,120,150,180,220,
270,330,390,470,560,680,820, etc

39
 Resistors

Example:
A 470 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating of P = V²/R
= 10²/470 = 0.21W.
In this case a standard 0.25W resistor would be suitable
A 27 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating of P = V²/R
= 10²/27 = 3.7W.
A high power resistor with a rating of 5W would be suitable.

40
 Variable Resistors
 A variable resistor is a resistor whose resistance value can
be
changed.

41
 Variable resistors

 Decade resistance box

 Provides any R within a wide range of values
 First dial is the units or R × 1 dial.
 Second dial is the tens or R × 10 dial
 The hundreds or R × 100 dial has an R of 0
to 900Ω
 Etc.
 Dials are connected internally so that their
values add to one another.

42
 Rheostats and
Potentiometers
Rheostats and potentiometers are variable resistances
used
to vary the amount of current or voltage in a circuit.
 Rheostats:
 Two terminals.
 Connected in series with the load and the voltage
source.
 Varies the current.

43
Rheostats and
Potentiometers
 Potentiometers:
 Three terminals.
 Ends connected across the voltage source.
 Third variable arm taps off part of the
voltage.

44
 Rheostats and
Potentiometers
 Using a Rheostat to Control Current Flow
 The rheostat must have a wattage rating high enough for
the
maximum I when R is minimum.

Rheostat connected in series circuit to vary the current I. Symbol for the current meter is A, for
amperes. (a) Wiring diagram with digital meter for I. (b) Schematic diagram.
45
Power Rating of
Resistors
 In addition to having the required ohms value, a
resistor should have a wattage rating high enough
to dissipate the power produced by the current
without becoming too hot.
 Power rating depends on the resistor’s
construction.
 A larger physical size indicates a higher power
rating.
 Higher-wattage resistors can operate at higher
temperatures.
 Wire-wound resistors are physically larger and have
higher power ratings than carbon resistors. 46
 Power rating
calculations
 Maximum allowable current for any resistance setting
is calculated
P
as:
I max  R
 Maximum voltage which produces the rated power
dissipation can be calculated as:

P.
Vmax 
R
P and R are the rated value of rheostat
Q. What is Imax of a 5-KΩ 2-W rheostat?
47
 Resistor Troubles
 Resistors can become open or they can drift out of
tolerance.

 Some controls (especially volume and tone controls) may

become noisy or scratchy-sounding, indicating a dirty or
worn- out resistance element.

 Due to the very nature of their construction, resistors can

short out [Link] may, however, become short-
circuited by another component in the circuit.

48
 Resistor Troubles
An open resistor measures infinite
resistance.



An example of an out-of-tolerance
resistor:

1 k nominal

1.5 k
49
 RESISTOR
TROUBLES
 Resistance measurements are made
with an ohmmeter.

 Theohmmeter has its own voltage

source, so voltage must be off in
the circuit being tested. Otherwise
the ohmmeter may become
damaged.
50
 RESISTOR TROUBLES
 All experienced technicians have seen a burnt resistor.

 This is usually caused by a short somewhere else in the

circuit which causes a high current to flow in the resistor.
 When a resistor’s power rating is exceeded, it can burn
open
or drift way out of tolerance.

51
 RESISTORS IN SERIES
Consider the series combination of three resistances shown in the Figure. Recall that in a series circuit the
elements are connected end to end and that the same current flows through all of the elements. By Ohm’s law,
we can write:

V1  R1i
V2  R2 i
V3  R3i
V  V1  V2  V3
V  R1i  R2 i  R3i
V  ( R1  R2  R3 )i
Req  R1  R2  R3
V  Req i

52
 RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

The figure shows three resistances in parallel. In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each element is the same.
Applying Ohm’s law, we can write
V
i1 
R1
V
i2 
R2
V
i3 
R3
i  i1  i2  i3
V V V
i  
R1 R2 R3
 1 1 1 
i    V
 R1 R2 R3 
1
Req 
1 1 1
 
R1 R2 R3
1
i V
Req
53
COMBINING RESISTANCES IN SERIES AND
PARALLEL
Example:
Find a single equivalent resistance for the network shown in Figure

54
END OF LECTURE
1!!!!!!

55