Chapter 4

MEMORY SYSTEM ORGANIZATION

AND ARCHITECTURE
Storage systems and their technology
Computer memory is any physical device, used to
store data, information or instruction temporarily or
permanently.
To store various types of data like text, images,
video, audio, documents, etc.
Features of Memory
Location
It represents the internal or external location of the memory in a
computer.
internal memory is inbuilt in computer memory.
It is also known as primary memory. the example of primary
memory are registers, cache and main memory. Whereas,
external memory is the separate storage device from the computer,
such as disk, tape, USB pen drive.
Capacity
It is the most important feature of computer memory.
Storage capacity can vary in external and internal memory.
External devices' storage capacity is measured in terms of
bytes, whereas
the internal memory is measured with bytes or words.
Access Methods
Direct Access Method:
is a method that allows input/output (I/O) devices to access or retrieve data
directly or from the main memory.

Sequential Access Method:

 method is used in a data storage device to read stored data sequentially from
the computer memory.
 The data received from random access memory (RAM) can be in any order.
Cont.…
Random Access Method:
It is a method used to randomly access data from memory.
This method is the opposite of SAM.

Associative Access Method:

It is a special type of memory that optimizes search performance through
defined data to directly access the stored information based on a memory
address.
Unit of transfer
Unit of transfer measures the transfer rate of bits that can be read
or write in or out of the memory devices.
The transfer rate of data can be different in external and internal
memory.
Internal memory: The transfer rate of bits is mostly equal to the
word size.
External memory: The transfer rate of bit or unit is not equal to the
word length.
data are often transferred in much larger units than a word and these
are referred to as blocks.
Performance
Access Time:
it represents the total time taken by memory devices to perform a read or write
operation that an address is sent to memory.
Memory Cycle Time:
Total time required to access memory block and additional required time before
starting second access.
Transfer rate:
It describes the transfer rate of data used to transmit memory to or from an
external or internal memory device.
Bit transfer can be different for different external and internal devices.
Physical types:
Physical types
It defines the physical type of memory used in a computer
such as magnetic, semiconductor, magneto-optical and
optical.
Physical characteristics and Organization
Physical characteristics
It specifies the physical behavior of the memory like volatile, non-
volatile or non-erasable memory.
Organization
It defines the physical structure of the bits used in memory.
Coding
Coding
coding typically related to error-correction coding techniques.
These codes are designed to mitigate the impact of errors that can occur during
the storage and transmission of data
especially in noisy communication channels or unreliable storage media.
Error Correction Codes (ECC)
Error correction codes are a vital component of modern data storage and
communication systems.
They involve adding redundant bits to the original data to enable the receiver to
not only detect errors but also correct them.
Data Compression
Data compression refers to the process of encoding information using fewer bits than the
original representation.
This reduction in size helps save storage space and minimize transmission times.
There are two main types of data compression: lossy compression and lossless compression.
Lossless Compression
In lossless compression, the original data can be perfectly reconstructed from the compressed
data.
Lossy Compression
involves reducing the size of the data by removing redundant information that is not essential
for its perception.
This approach is commonly used for multimedia data like images, audio, and video.
Data Integrity
Data integrity revolves around ensuring that data remains accurate and unaltered throughout its lifecycle.
It involves techniques used to detect errors or alterations in data.
Checksums
Checksums are values derived from a set of data, used to detect errors that might have been introduced
during its transmission or storage.
Cryptographic Hash Functions
Cryptographic hash functions are algorithms that produce a fixed-size hash value from input data.
These are used to verify data integrity and ensure that the data has not been tampered with.
Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRC)
CRCs are a type of hash function used to detect errors in digital data.
They are often used in network communications, storage devices, and other scenarios where data
integrity is important.
Cont.…
Understanding and implementing coding, data compression, and data integrity
techniques is crucial in several domains:
Data Storage and Archiving
Data Transmission
Bandwidth Efficiency
Data Security
4.3 Memory hierarchy
Types of Memory Hierarchy
This Memory Hierarchy Design is divided into 2 main types:
Internal Memory or Primary Memory:
Comprising of Main Memory, Cache Memory & CPU registers. This is directly
accessible by the processor.
External Memory or Secondary Memory:
Comprising of Magnetic Disk, Optical Disk, and Magnetic Tape i.e. peripheral
storage devices which are accessible by the processor via an I/O Module.
The memory units that provide backup storage are called Auxiliary Memory.
Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy
Capacity:
It is the global volume of information the memory can store.
As we move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the capacity increases.
Access Time:
It is the time interval between the read/write request and the availability of the
data.
As we move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the access time increases.
Cost Per Bit:
As we move from bottom to top in the Hierarchy, the cost per bit increases i.e.
Internal Memory is costlier than External Memory.
1. Registers
Registers are small, high-speed memory units located in the CPU.
They are used to store the most frequently used data and
instructions.
Registers have the fastest access time and the smallest storage
capacity, typically ranging from 16 to 64 bits.
2. Cache Memory
Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory.
The cache is a smaller and faster memory that stores copies of the data from
frequently used main memory locations.
There are various different independent caches in a CPU, which store
instructions and data.
The most important use of cache memory is that it is used to reduce the average
time to access data from the main memory.
Cache memory is placed between the CPU and the main memory.
Cache Mapping
There are three different types of mapping used for the purpose of
cache memory which is as follows:
Direct Mapping
Associative Mapping
Set-Associative Mapping
3. Main Memory
Main memory, also known as RAM (Random Access Memory), is
the primary memory of a computer system.
It has a larger storage capacity than cache memory, but it is slower.
Main memory is used to store data and instructions that are
currently in use by the CPU.
4. Magnetic disk
Magnetic disk is a type of data storage device that uses magnetization to read,
write, and access data.
It consists of a flat disc covered with a magnetic coating, and stores data in the
form of tracks, spots, and sectors.
Magnetic disks are traditionally used as secondary storage devices in computers
Examples include hard disks, zip disks, and the now-obsolete floppy disks.
5. Optical disk
optical disk is a data storage medium that can store large amounts of
information in a digital format.
It uses optical storage technology, where data is written and read with a laser
beam.
Optical disks are known for their durability compared to magnetic storage
media like hard drives.
They are also portable, making them convenient for sharing and transporting
data.
Common types include CDs (Compact Discs), DVDs (Digital Versatile Discs)
6. Magnetic tape storage
Magnetic tape storage is a system for storing digital information on magnetic
tape using digital recording.
It’s a form of sequential access storage, meaning data is read in the order it was
written, which is different from the random access nature of hard drives and
SSDs.
Magnetic tape storage has been used since the early days of computing and
continues to be relevant today.
Especially for organizations that need to store large amounts of data for
extended periods.
Main memory organization and operations
The main memory acts as the central storage unit in a computer system.
It is a relatively large and fast memory which is used to store programs and data
during the run time operations.
primary technology used for the main memory is based on semiconductor
integrated circuits.
The integrated circuits for the main memory are classified into two major units.
RAM (Random Access Memory) integrated circuit chips
ROM (Read Only Memory) integrated circuit chips
RAM (Random Access Memory) integrated circuit chips
It is one of the parts of the Main memory, also famously known as
Read Write Memory.
Random Access memory is present on the motherboard and the
computer’s data is temporarily stored in RAM.
RAM can help in both Read and write.
RAM is a volatile memory, which means, it is present as long as the
Computer is in the ON state, as soon as the computer turns OFF, the
memory is erased.
Types of RAM
SRAM (Static Random Access memory)
The function of SRAM is that it provides a direct interface with the Central
Processing Unit at higher speeds.
SRAM is used as the Cache memory inside the computer.
SRAM is known to be the fastest among all memories.
SRAM is costly.
SRAM has a lower density (number of memory cells per unit area).
The power consumption of SRAM is less
Cont.…
DRAM (Dynamic Random Access memory)
The function of DRAM is that it is used for programming code by a computer
processor in order to function. It is used in our PCs (Personal Computers).
DRAM is used as the Main Memory inside the computer.
DRAM is known to be a fast memory but not as fast as SRAM.
DRAM is cheaper as compared to SRAM.
DRAM has a higher density (number of memory cells per unit area)
The power consumption by DRAM is more
ROM (Read-Only Memory) integrated circuit chips
It is a non-volatile memory that is used to store important information which is
used to operate the system.
only read the programs and data stored on it.
It is also a primary memory unit of the computer system.
It contains some electronic fuses that can be programmed for a piece of specific
information.
The information stored in the ROM in binary format.
It is also known as permanent memory.
Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)
MROM (Masked read-only memory)
PROM (Programmable read-only memory)
EPROM (Erasable programmable read-only memory)
EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory)
 Quiz(5%)
1. List at least 5 Features of Memory.
2. List four access methods.
3. Write the memory Hierarchy levels with their Characteristics.
4. Write the difference between SRAM and DRAM