Characteristics CB CE CC

Common
Terminal for
Input and Base Emitter Collector
Output Terminal Terminal Terminal
Base and Base and
Input voltage Emitter and Emitter Collector
applied between Base terminal Terminal Terminal
Collector and Collector and Emitter and
Output Voltage Base Emitter Collector
taken across Terminal Terminal Terminal
Very
Very high(200 to
Input Low(only 50 Medium(500 750 kilo
Impedance to 500 ohm) to 5000 ohm) ohm)
Very High(1 Medium(50 Very Low(
Output to 10 Mega to 500 kilo up to 50
Impedance Ohm) ohm) ohm)

Emitter Base Current Base Current

Input Current Current or IE or IB or IB

Collector Collector Emitter

Output Current Current or IC Current or IC Current or IE

Output Signal Same phase 180 degree Same phase

Phase with input out of phase with input
Always less Between 35
than Unity to 500 Very High
Current Gain α = IC/IE β = IC/IB γ = IE/IB

Less Than
Voltage Gain About 150 About 500 Unity

Leakage
Current Very Small Very Large Very Large

Power Gain Medium High Medium

High
Frequency RF Signal Switching
Application Circuits Processing Circuits
Comparison between CB, CE, and CC Configuration

Bipolar Junction Transistor(BJT) has a total of three terminals that are Emitter,
Base, and Collector. So when a BJT is to be connected in a circuit, it's one terminal
that must be taken as the common terminal for both input and output. So, according
to taking common terminal, there are three types of configurations that are Common
Emitter or CE configuration, Common Base or CB configuration, and Common
Collector or CC configuration.

CB configuration of Transistor
In this configuration, the base terminal of the
transistor is taken as the common terminal. In this configuration, the input voltage is
applied between emitter and base terminal and the output voltage is taken across
the collector and base terminal. Here you can see the diagram below.
In common base configuration circuit is shown in figure. Here base is grounded
and it is used as the common terminal for both input and output.
It is also called as grounded base configuration. Emitter is used as a input terminal
where as collector is the output terminal.

Input characteristics:
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltage to input
current whereas output voltage is constant.
To determine input characteristics, the collector base voltage VCB is kept constant
at zero and emitter current IE is increased from zero by increasing [Link] is
repeated for higher fixed values of VCB.

A curve is drawn between emitter current and emitter base voltage at constant
collector base voltage is shown in figure [Link] VCB is zero EB junctions is
forward biased. So it behaves as a diode so that emitter current increases rapidly.
 Output Characteristics
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltage to output
current whereas input current is [Link] determine output characteristics, the
emitter current IE is kept constant at zero and collector current Ic is increased from
zero by increasing [Link] is repeated for higher fixed values of IE.
From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IE, Ic is independent
of VCB and the curves are parallel to the axis of [Link] the emitter base junction is
forward biased the majority carriers that is electrons from the emitter region are
injected into the base region.
In CB configuration a variation of the base-collector voltage results in a variation
of the quasi- neutral width in the base. The gradient of the minority-carrier density
in the base therefore changes, yielding an increased collector current as the
collector-base current is increased. This effect is referred to as the Early effect.
Application of CB configuration

1. Transistor CB configuration used in current to voltage converter circuits.

2. This configuration used in very high-frequency applications.
3. This configuration is used to increase the impedance of the current source.

CE configuration of Transistor
In this configuration, the emitter
terminal of the transistor is taken as the common terminal. The input voltage is
applied between Base and Emitter terminal and the output voltage is taken across
the collector and emitter terminal. Here you can see the diagram below.

In common emitter configuration circuit is shown in figure. Here emitter is

grounded and it is used as the common terminal for both input and output. It is also
called as grounded emitter configuration. Base is used as a input terminal whereas
collector is the output terminal.

 Input Characteristics
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltages to input
current whereas output voltage is constant.

To determine input characteristics, the collector base voltage VCB is kept constant
at zero and base current IB is increased from zero by increasing [Link] is
repeated for higher fixed values of VCE.
A curve is drawn between base current and base emitter voltage at constant
collector base voltage is shown in figure2.14. Here the base width decreases. So
curve moves right as VCE increases.

 Output Characteristics

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltage to output

current whereas input current is constant.
To determine output characteristics, the base current IB i s kept constant at zero
and collector current Ic is increased from zero by increasing [Link] is repeated
for higher fixed values of IB.
From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IB, Ic is independent
of VCB and the curves are parallel to the axis of VCE.
Application of CE configuration

1. CE configuration is used RF signal processing circuits.

2. This configuration is used for audio amplifier circuits.
3. This configuration is used in sensor controller circuits.

CC configuration of Transistor
This is the most usable and simple configuration of transistors. In this configuration,
the collector terminal of the transistor is used as a common terminal. The input
voltage is applied between the Base and Collector terminal and the output voltage is
taken across emitter and collector terminal. Here you can see the diagram below.
In common collector configuration circuit is shown in figure. Here collector is
grounded and it is used as the common terminal for both input and output. It is also
called as grounded collector configuration. Base is used as a input terminal
whereas emitter is the output terminal.
 Input Characteristics

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltage to input

current whereas output voltage is constant.
To determine input characteristics, the emitter base voltage VEB is kept constant at
zero and base current IB is increased from zero by increasing [Link] is repeated
for higher fixed values of VCE.A curve is drawn between base current and base
emitter voltage at constant collector base voltage is shown in figure2.17.
 Output Characteristics

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltage to output

current whereas input current is constant.
To determine output characteristics, the base current IB is kept constant at zero
and emitter current IE is increased from zero by increasing VEC. This is repeated
for higher fixed values of IB.
From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IB, IE is independent
of VEB and the curves are parallel to the axis of VEC.

Application of CC Configuration

1. Transistor CC configuration is used for switching purposes.

2. This configuration is used for impedance matching.
3. This configuration is used in power amplifier circuits.
4. This configuration is used to make digital logic gates.
We know that transistor is a current controlled device . In transistor gain is
recognized by the term current gain. Which is defined as ratio of output current to input
current .
We can now summaries the various relationships between the transistors individual
DC currents flowing through each leg and its DC current gains given above in the
following table.
Relationship between DC Currents and Gains
Transistor as an Amplifier
A transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device, and the terminals are E(Emitter),
B (Base) & C (Collector). The transistor can work in three different regions like active
region, cutoff region & saturation region. Transistors are turned off while working in the
cut-off region and turned on while working in the saturation region. Transistors work as
an amplifier while they work in the active region. The main function of a transistor as
an amplifier is to enhance the input signal without changing much. Here this article
discusses how a transistor works as an amplifier.

Transistor as an Amplifier
Amplifier circuit can be defined as, a circuit which is used to amplify a strength of weak
signal without changing in its shape and size . The input of the amplifier is a voltage
otherwise current, where the output will be an amplifier input signal. An amplifier circuit
which uses a transistor otherwise transistors is known as a transistor amplifier.
The applications of transistor amplifier circuits mainly involve in audio, radio, optical
fiber communication, etc.
Transistor Biasing
Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating voltage or current
conditions to the correct level so that any AC input signal can be amplified correctly by
the transistor

The steady state operation of a transistor depends a great deal on its base current,
collector voltage, and collector current values and therefore, if the transistor is to
operate correctly as a linear amplifier, it must be properly biased around its operating
point.
Establishing the correct operating point requires the selection of bias resistors and load
resistors to provide the appropriate input current and collector voltage conditions. The
correct biasing point for a bipolar transistor, either NPN or PNP, generally lies
somewhere between the two extremes of operation with respect to it being either “fully-
ON” or “fully-OFF” along its DC load line. This central operating point is called the
“Quiescent Operating Point”, or Q-point for short.
When a bipolar transistor is biased so that the Q-point is near the middle of its operating
range, that is approximately halfway between cut-off and saturation, it is said to be
operating as a Class-A amplifier. This mode of operation allows the output voltage to
increase and decrease around the amplifiers Q-point without distortion as the input
signal swings through one complete cycle. In other words, the output is available for the
full 360o of the input cycle.

Fixed Biasing method :

The circuit shown is called as a “fixed base bias circuit”, because the transistors base
current, IB remains constant for given values of Vcc, and therefore the transistors
operating point must also remain fixed. This two resistor biasing network is used to
establish the initial operating region of the transistor using a fixed current bias.
This type of transistor biasing arrangement is also beta dependent biasing as the
steady-state condition of operation is a function of the transistors beta β value, so the
biasing point will vary over a wide range for transistors of the same type as the
characteristics of the transistors will not be exactly the same.
The emitter diode of the transistor is forward biased by applying the required positive
base bias voltage via the current limiting resistor RB. Assuming a standard bipolar
transistor, the forward base-emitter voltage drop would be 0.7V. Then the value of RB is
simply: (VCC – VBE)/IB where IB is defined as IC/β.
With this single resistor type of biasing arrangement the biasing voltages and currents
do not remain stable during transistor operation and can vary enormously. Also the
operating temperature of the transistor can adversely effect the operating point.
Collector Feedback Biasing a Transistor

This self biasing collector feedback configuration is another beta dependent biasing
method which requires two resistors to provide the necessary DC bias for the transistor.
The collector to base feedback configuration ensures that the transistor is always
biased in the active region regardless of the value of Beta (β). The DC base bias
voltage is derived from the collector voltage VC, thus providing good stability.
In this circuit, the base bias resistor, RB is connected to the transistors collector C,
instead of to the supply voltage rail, Vcc. Now if the collector current increases, the
collector voltage drops, reducing the base drive and thereby automatically reducing the
collector current to keep the transistors Q-point fixed. Therefore this method of collector
feedback biasing produces negative feedback round the transistor as there is a direct
feedback from the output terminal to the input terminal via resistor, RB.
Since the biasing voltage is derived from the voltage drop across the load resistor, RL, if
the load current increases there will be a larger voltage drop across RL, and a
corresponding reduced collector voltage, VC. This effect will cause a corresponding drop
in the base current, IB which in turn, brings IC back to normal.
The opposite reaction will also occur when the transistors collector current reduces.
Then this method of biasing is called self-biasing with the transistors stability using this
type of feedback bias network being generally good for most amplifier designs.
Voltage Divider Transistor Biasing

Here the common emitter transistor configuration is biased using a voltage divider
network to increase stability. The name of this biasing configuration comes from the fact
that the two resistors RB1 and RB2 form a voltage or potential divider network across the
supply with their center point junction connected the transistors base terminal as shown.
This voltage divider biasing configuration is the most widely used transistor biasing
method. The emitter diode of the transistor is forward biased by the voltage value
developed across resistor RB2. Also, voltage divider network biasing makes the
transistor circuit independent of changes in beta as the biasing voltages set at the
transistors base, emitter, and collector terminals are not dependant on external circuit
values.
To calculate the voltage developed across resistor RB2 and therefore the voltage applied
to the base terminal we simply use the voltage divider formula for resistors in series.
Generally the voltage drop across resistor RB2 is much less than for resistor RB1. Clearly
the transistors base voltage VB with respect to ground, will be equal to the voltage
across RB2.
The amount of biasing current flowing through resistor RB2 is generally set to 10 times
the value of the required base current IB so that it is sufficiently high enough to have no
effect on the voltage divider current or changes in Beta.
The goal of Transistor Biasing is to establish a known quiescent operating point, or Q-
point for the bipolar transistor to work efficiently and produce an undistorted output
signal. Correct DC biasing of the transistor also establishes its initial AC operating
region with practical biasing circuits using either a two or four-resistor bias network.
In bipolar transistor circuits, the Q-point is represented by ( VCE, IC ) for the NPN
transistors or ( VEC, IC ) for PNP transistors. The stability of the base bias network and
therefore the Q-point is generally assessed by considering the collector current as a
function of both Beta (β) and temperature.
Here we have looked briefly at five different configurations for “biasing a transistor”
using resistive networks. But we can also bias a transistor using either silicon diodes,
zener diodes or active networks all connected to the transistors base terminal. We could
also correctly bias the transistor from a dual voltage power supply if so wished.

Transistor as a Switch
Transistor switches can be used to switch a low voltage DC device (e.g. LED’s) ON or
OFF by using a transistor in its saturated or cut-off state

When used as an AC signal amplifier, the transistors Base biasing voltage is applied in
such a way that it always operates within its “active” region, that is the linear part of the
output characteristics curves are used.
However, both the NPN & PNP type bipolar transistors can be made to operate as
“ON/OFF” type solid state switch by biasing the transistors Base terminal differently to
that for a signal amplifier.
Solid state switches are one of the main applications for the use of transistor to switch a
DC output “ON” or “OFF”. Some output devices, such as LED’s only require a few
milliamps at logic level DC voltages and can therefore be driven directly by the output of
a logic gate. However, high power devices such as motors, solenoids or lamps, often
require more power than that supplied by an ordinary logic gate so transistor switches
are used.
If the circuit uses the Bipolar Transistor as a Switch, then the biasing of the transistor,
either NPN or PNP is arranged to operate the transistor at both sides of the ” I-V ”
characteristics curves we have seen previously.
The areas of operation for a transistor switch are known as the Saturation Region and
the Cut-off Region. This means then that we can ignore the operating Q-point biasing
and voltage divider circuitry required for amplification, and use the transistor as a switch
by driving it back and forth between its “fully-OFF” (cut-off) and “fully-ON” (saturation)
regions as shown below.

Operating Regions

1. Cut-off Region
Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base current ( IB ), zero
output collector current ( IC ) and maximum collector voltage ( VCE ) which results in a
large depletion layer and no current flowing through the device. Therefore the transistor
is switched “Fully-OFF”.

Cut-off Characteristics
 The input and Base are grounded ( 0v )
Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7v
Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased
Base-Collector junction is reverse biased
Transistor is “fully-OFF” ( Cut-off region )
No Collector current flows ( IC = 0 )
VOUT = VCE = VCC = “1”
Transistor operates as an “open switch”

Then we can define the “cut-off region” or “OFF mode” when using a bipolar transistor
as a switch as being, both junctions reverse biased, VB < 0.7v and IC = 0. For a PNP
transistor, the Emitter potential must be negative with respect to the Base.

2. Saturation Region
Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of base current is
applied, resulting in maximum collector current resulting in the minimum collector
emitter voltage drop which results in the depletion layer being as small as possible and
maximum current flowing through the transistor. Therefore the transistor is switched
“Fully-ON”.

Saturation Characteristics
The input and Base are connected to VCC
Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7v
Base-Emitter junction is forward biased
Base-Collector junction is forward biased
Transistor is “fully-ON” ( saturation region )
Max Collector current flows ( IC = Vcc/RL )
VCE = 0 ( ideal saturation )
VOUT = VCE = “0”
Transistor operates as a “closed switch”
Then we can define the “saturation region” or “ON mode” when using a bipolar
transistor as a switch as being, both junctions forward
biased, VB > 0.7v and IC = Maximum. For a PNP transistor, the Emitter potential must be
positive with respect to the Base.
Then the transistor operates as a “single-pole single-throw” (SPST) solid state switch.
With a zero signal applied to the Base of the transistor it turns “OFF” acting like an open
switch and zero collector current flows. With a positive signal applied to the Base of the
transistor it turns “ON” acting like a closed switch and maximum circuit current flows
through the device.
The simplest way to switch moderate to high amounts of power is to use the transistor
with an open-collector output and the transistors Emitter terminal connected directly to
ground. When used in this way, the transistors open collector output can thus “sink” an
externally supplied voltage to ground thereby controlling any connected load.
An example of an NPN Transistor as a switch being used to operate a relay is given
below. With inductive loads such as relays or solenoids a flywheel diode is placed
across the load to dissipate the back EMF generated by the inductive load when the
transistor switches “OFF” and so protect the transistor from damage. If the load is of a
very high current or voltage nature, such as motors, heaters etc, then the load current
can be controlled via a suitable relay as shown.

Basic NPN Transistor Switching Circuit

The circuit resembles that of the Common Emitter circuit we looked at in the previous
tutorials. The difference this time is that to operate the transistor as a switch the
transistor needs to be turned either fully “OFF” (cut-off) or fully “ON” (saturated).
An ideal transistor switch would have infinite circuit resistance between the Collector
and Emitter when turned “fully-OFF” resulting in zero current flowing through it and zero
resistance between the Collector and Emitter when turned “fully-ON”, resulting in
maximum current flow.
In practice when the transistor is turned “OFF”, small leakage currents flow through the
transistor and when fully “ON” the device has a low resistance value causing a small
saturation voltage ( VCE ) across it. Even though the transistor is not a perfect switch, in
both the cut-off and saturation regions the power dissipated by the transistor is at its
minimum.
In order for the Base current to flow, the Base input terminal must be made more
positive than the Emitter by increasing it above the 0.7 volts needed for a silicon device.
By varying this Base-Emitter voltage VBE, the Base current is also altered and which in
turn controls the amount of Collector current flowing through the transistor as previously
discussed.
When maximum Collector current flows the transistor is said to be Saturated. The value
of the Base resistor determines how much input voltage is required and corresponding
Base current to switch the transistor fully “ON”.