CBSE CLASS XII - CHAPTER 3 - MATRICES

FUNDAMENTALS OF MATRIX AND MATRIX

ALGEBRA
CHAPTER WEIGHTAGE
Matrices alongside Determinants fall under the unit Algebra which
constitutes for 10 out of the total 80 marks
CHAPTER CHECKLIST
▸ Matrix and It’s Types

▸ Addition and Scalar Multiplication of Matrices

▸ Multiplication of Matrices

▸ Transpose of a Matrix, Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrices

▸ Elementary operations

▸ Invertible Matrices
TOPIC 1

MATRICES & IT’S

TYPES
MATRIX
A Matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions

[4 5 6]
1 2 3 First Row (R1)
A=
Second Row (R2)
(2 x 3)

First Column (C1) Third Column (C3)

Second Column (C2)
MATRIX

[4 5 6]
1 2 3
A=
(2 x 3)

[cosθ sinθ ]
sinθ cosθ aij ∈ R, ∀ i and j
B=
(2 x 2)

We will consider only those matrices whose elements are real numbers or real
valued functions
GENERAL REPRESENTATION OF A MATRIX

a11 a12 . . . a1n

a21 a22 . . . a2n
A= a31 a32 . . . a3n
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
am1 am2 . . . amn
mxn Order of the matrix

In Notation Form, A = [aij]m x n , where 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n and i, j ∈ N

ORDER & NUMBER OF ELEMENTS OF A MATRIX
In Notation Form, A = [aij]m x n , where 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n and i, j ∈ N

Order of Matrix A = m x n

Number of elements in Matrix A = mn

EXAMPLE QUESTION 1.
What is the order and number of elements of the matrix given below ?

1 2 3
A= 4 5 6
7 8 9
ANSWER

1 2 3
A= 4 5 6
7 8 9 3X3

Order of Matrix A = 3 x 3

Number of elements in Matrix A = 9

EXAMPLE QUESTION 2.

2 5 19 −81
A= 26 −2 5/2 12
3 1 −9 18
[Link] the order of the matrix.

[Link] the values of elements a13, a21, a23, a33.

1. ORDER OF THE MATRIX IS ?

2 5 19 −81 R1
A= 26 −2 5/2 12 R2

3 1 −9 18 R3

Order of A = 3 x 4
C1 C2 C3 C4
2. Write the values of elements a13, a21, a23, a33.

2 5 19 −81
A= 26 −2 5/2 12
3 1 −9 18
a13 ?

a13

2 5 19 −81 R1
A= 26 −2 5/2 12
3 1 −9 18

a13 = 19
C3
2. Write the values of elements a13, a21, a23, a33.

2 5 19 −81 a13 = 19
26 −2 5/2 12
3 1 −9 18 a21 = 26
a23 = 5/2

a33 = -9
EXAMPLE QUESTION 3.
A jeweller sells 10 rings, 15 bracelets and 20 necklaces in rst week and 5
rings, 30 bracelets and 10 necklaces in the second week. Represent this
information in a matrix

Rings Bracelets Necklaces

[ 5 30 10]
First Week
10 15 20
Second Week

2X3

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ANSWER
A jeweller sells 10 rings, 15 bracelets and 20 necklaces in rst week and 5
rings, 30 bracelets and 10 necklaces in the second week. Represent this
information in a matrix
Alternate Representation
Rings Bracelets Necklaces

Second Week [ 5 30 10]

First Week Second Week
First Week
10 15 20 Rings 10 5
Bracelets 15 30
2X3
Necklaces
20 10
3X2

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EXAMPLE QUESTION 4.
Represent the point P(1,2,3) in a plane by a matrix

1
[ ]
x x y z
y 2 Or P [1 2 3]
1X3
z
3 3X1
EXAMPLE QUESTION 5.
Represent the Quadrilateral ABCD described in gure
below by a matrix

D(-3, 2) C(2, -2)

A(3, 0) B(-1, 2)

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 ANSWER
D(-3, 2) C(2, -2)

ALTERNATIVELY

A(3, 0) B(-1, 2) x y

A B C D
A 3 0

y [0 2]
x 3 −1 2 −3 B −1 2
2 −2 C 2 −2
2X4 D −3 2 4x2
ORDER OF A MATRIX GIVEN NUMBER OF ELEMENTS
A = [aij]m x n , where 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n and i, j ∈ N
A matrix of order m x n has mn = P elements

‣ Find all possible factors of P

‣ Form possible ordered pairs using these factors such that the product
of elements of each ordered pair is P

‣ These ordered pairs give the possible orders of the given Matrix A
EXAMPLE QUESTION 6.
If a Matrix has 16 elements, nd the possible orders of the matrix

A matrix of order m x n has mn = P elements = 16

‣ Find all possible factors of P = 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16

‣ Form possible ordered pairs using these factors such that the product of
elements of each ordered pair is P - (1, 16), (2, 8), (4, 4), (8, 2) & (16, 1)

‣ Possible orders of matrix are 1 x 16, 2 x 8, 4 x 4, 8 x 2, 16 x 1

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FORMATION OF A MATRIX - EXAMPLE QUESTION 7.
| i − 3j |
aij =
2
Let A be a matrix of order 3 x 2

a11 a12
Then, A = [aij]3 x 2 = a21 a22
a31 a32
FORMATION OF A MATRIX - ANSWER
| i − 3j |
aij =
2
|1 − 3| |1 − 6| 5
a11 = =1 a12 = =
2 2 2
|2 − 3| 1 |2 − 6|
a21 = = a22 = =2
2 2 2
|3 − 3| |3 − 6| 3
a31 = =0 a32 = =
2 2 2
FORMATION OF A MATRIX - ANSWER

5
1 2
A = [aij]3 x 2 =
1
2
2
3
0 2
TYPES OF MATRICES
‣ ROW MATRIX
‣ COLUMN MATRIX
‣ ZERO OR NULL MATRIX
‣ SQUARE MATRIX
‣ DIAGONAL MATRIX
‣ SCALAR MATRIX
‣ UNIT OR IDENTITY MATRIX
ROW MATRIX
A matrix having only one row is called a row matrix

A= [1 2 3] 1x3
[one row and three columns]

In general, row matrix A = [aij]1 x n

Where, n is the number of columns

COLUMN MATRIX
A matrix having only one column is called a column matrix

1
[3]
B=
2 [one column and three rows]

3x1

In general, column matrix B= [bij]m x 1

Where, m is the number of rows

ZERO OR NULL MATRIX
If all the elements of a matrix is zero (0), then it is called a zero or null matrix

0 0 0
[0 0 0]
O=
0 0 0 [Denoted by letter O]

3x3

aij = 0, ∀ i and j
SQUARE MATRIX

A matrix in which number of rows and columns is equal, is called a square matrix.

1 2 3
A= 4 5 6 [Matrix of order n x n is called square matrix of order n]

7 8 9 3x3

In general, square matrix A= [aij]m x m or [aij]n x n

where, number of rows = number of columns = m or n

DIAGONAL ELEMENTS OF A SQUARE MATRIX

1 2 3
a11

A=
4 5 6 a22 1, 5, 9 are diagonal elements of A

7 8 9 a33

3x3

If A = [aij]n x n is any square matrix of order n, then elements a11, a22, a33, …. ann are
said to constitute the diagonal elements of A
DIAGONAL MATRIX
A square matrix A = [aij]n x n is a diagonal matrix if all non-diagonal
elements are 0

1 0 0
[0 0 3]
A=
0 2 0 [ aij = 0, for i ≠ j ]

3x3
DIAGONAL MATRIX

1 0 0
[0 0 3]
A=
0 2 0 = diag (1, 2, 3)

3x3

A diagonal matrix of order n x n can be denoted by diag[a11, a22, a33, …., ann]

ALL DIAGONAL MATRICES ARE SQUARE MATRICES

SCALAR MATRIX
A diagonal matrix in which all diagonal element are equal is a scalar matrix

2 0 0
[0 0 2]
{constant k, for i = j
0, for i ≠ j
aij =

A=
0 2 0
[ ij
a = 2, when i = j and aij = 0, when i ≠ j ]
3x3

ALL SCALAR MATRICES ARE SQUARE AND DIAGONAL MATRICES

UNIT OR IDENTITY MATRIX
A scalar matrix in which all diagonal element are equal to 1 is a identity
matrix

1 0 0
[0 0 1]
{1, for i = j
aij =
0, for i ≠ j
I=
0 1 0
[ ij
a = 1, when i = j and aij = 0, when i ≠ j ]
3x3

ALL IDENTITY MATRICES ARE SQUARE, DIAGONAL AND SCALAR MATRICES

EQUALITY OF MATRICES
Two matrices, say A = [aij] and B = [bij], are said to be equal, if their order is same
and their corresponding elements are also equal.
aij = bij, ∀ i and j

[3 4] [3 4]
1 2 = 1 2
2X2 2X2

[3 4] [4 3]
1 2 ≠ 1 2
2X2 2X2
EXAMPLE QUESTION 8.
x + 3 z + 4 2y − 7 0 6 3y − 2
If −6 a − 1 0 = −6 −3 2c + 2
b − 3 −21 0 2b + 4 −21 0
Find the values of a, b, c, x, y, z
ANSWER
x + 3 z + 4 2y − 7 0 6 3y − 2
−6 a − 1 0 = −6 −3 2c + 2
b − 3 −21 0 2b + 4 −21 0
x+3=0 z+4=6 2y - 7 = 3y - 2

a-1=3 0 = 2c + 2 b - 3 = 2b + 4

a = – 2, b = – 7, c = – 1, x = – 3, y = –5, z = 2
EXAMPLE QUESTION 9.

[2x − y 3z + w] [ 0 3]
x − y 2x + z −1 5
If =

Find the values of x, y, z, w

EXAMPLE QUESTION 9.

[2x − y 3z + w] [ 0 3]
x − y 2x + z −1 5
=
x= 1

x - y = -1 (i) 2x - y = 0 (ii) y= 2

2x + z = 5 (iii) 3z + w = 3 (iv) z= 3

Solving equations (i) and (ii), we get w=4

x = 1 and y = 2
Substitute value of x in (iii), we get z = 3
Substitute value of x in (iii), we get w = 4
NCERT EX 3.1.1
2 5 19 −7
5
In the Matrix A = 35 −2 2
12 , write

3 1 −5 17
1. The order of the matrix

2. The number of elements

3. Write the elements a13, a21, a33, a24, a23

TOPIC 2
ADDITION AND SCALAR
MULTIPLICATION
ADDITION OF MATRICES
Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be two matrices of the same order, say m x n. Then,
C = A + B = [cij]m × n, where cij = aij + bij ∀ i and j
If A and B are not of the same order, then A + B is not de ned

[7 3]
4 0
[3 2 ] [4 1 ] [(3 + 4) (2 + 1) ]
1 2 3 − 2 (1 + 3) ( 2 − 2)
+ = =
2x2 2x2 2x2 2x2
A B A+B C
3 2
[2 2]
[3 2 ]
1 2
+ 4 1 = Not De ned
2x2
3x2

A B
fi
fi
MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX BY A SCALAR
Let A = [aij]m × n and k be a scalar, Then
kA = k[aij]m × n = [k(aij)]m × n

[3 2]
A =
7 9 and k = 7

[3 2] [(7 × 3) (7 × 2)] [21 14]

7 9 (7 × 7) (7 × 9) 49 63
kA = 7A = 7 = =
NEGATIVE OF A MATRIX
Let A = [aij]m × n and k be a scalar, Then
kA = −A = (−1)[aij]m × n = [(−1)(aij)]m × n

A =[
−3 2 ]
7 −9

[−3 2 ] [ 3 −2]
7 −9 −7 9
−A = (-1) =
SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES
Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be two matrices of the same order, say m x n. Then,
C = A − B = [cij]m × n, where cij = aij − bij ∀ i and j
C = A − B = A + (-1)B

[3 1 ]
[7 2 ] [4 1 ] [(7 − 4) (2 − 1) ]
4 2 3 − 2 (4 − 3) ( 2 + 2) 1 2 2
− = =
A B A-B C
PROPERTIES OF MATRIX ADDITION
Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] and C = [cij] be any three matrices of the same order,

say m x n. Then, we have the following properties

1. Commutative Law

2. Associative Law

3. Existence of Additive Identity

4. Existence of Additive Inverse

1. COMMUTATIVE LAW
Matrix addition is commutative, i.e.
A + B = [aij] + [bij] = [aij + bij] = [bij + aij]
= [bij] + [aij] = B + A

[7 3]
4 0
[3 2 ] [4 1 ]
1 2 3 − 2
+ =
A B A+B
A + B = B + A

[7 3]
4 0
[4 1 ] [3 2 ]
3 − 2 + 1 2
=
B A B+A
2. ASSOCIATIVE LAW
Matrix addition is associative, i.e,

A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C

[7 3 ] ([14 6 ] [21 9 ] ) = [7 3 ] [35 15 ] = [42 18 ]

1 −1 2 −2 3 −3 1 −1 5 −5 6 −6
+ + +
A B C A B+C A + (B + C)

([7 3 ] [14 6 ] ) [21 9 ] = [21 9 ] [21 9 ] [42 18 ]

1 −1 2 −2 3 −3 3 −3 3 −3
+ + + = 6 −6

A B C A+B C A + (B + C)

A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
3. EXISTENCE OF ADDITIVE IDENTITY
Let O be a zero matrix of order m x n, then

A + O = O + A = A

[0 1] [0 0] [0 0] [0 1] [0 1]
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
+ = + =
A O O A A

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
[0 0 1] [0 0 0] [0 0 0] [0 0 1] [0 ]
0 1 0 + 0 0 0 = 0 0 0 + 0 1 0 = 0 1 0
0 1
A O O A A
4. EXISTENCE OF ADDITIVE INVERSE
Let A be the matrix of order m x n, then (−A) is another matrix of same order,
such that A + (−A) = O = (−A) + A
(−A) is the additive inverse of A

[−3 4 ] [ 3 −4] [0 0] [ 3 −4] [−3 4 ]

1 −2 −1 2 0 0 −1 2 1 −2
+ = = +
A (−A) O (−A) A

1 −2 3 −1 2 −3 0 0 0 −1 2 −3 1 −2 3
[0 0 0]
−4 5 −6 + 4 −5 6 = 0 0 0 = 4 −5 6 + −4 5 −6
7 −8 9 −7 8 −9 −7 8 −9 7 −8 9
A (−A) O (−A) A
PROPERTIES OF SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be two matrices of the same order, say m x n. Then,

(i) k(A + B) = kA + kB, where k is a scalar

(ii) (k1 + k2)A = k1A + k2 A, where k1 and k2 are scalars

(iii) (kl)A = k(lA) = l(kA), where k and l are scalars

k(A + B) = kA + kB, where k is a scalar

([7 3 ] [14 6 ] ) ([21 9 ] ) [147 63 ]

1 −1 2 −2 3 −3 21 −21
7× + = 7× =

A B A+B

[7 3 ] [14 6 ] [49 21 ] [98 42 ] [147 63 ]

1 −1 2 −2 7 −7 14 −14 21 −21
7× + 7× = + =

A B 7A 7B
(k1 + k2)A = k1A + k2 A, where k1 and k2 are scalars

([35 15 ]) ([35 15 ]) [350 150 ]

5 −5 5 −5 50 −50
(7 + 3) × = 10 × =
k1 k2
(k1 + k2)
A A

([35 15 ]) ([35 15 ]) [245 105 ] [105 45 ] [350 150 ]

5 −5 5 −5 35 −35 15 −15 50 −50
7× + 3× = + =
k1 A k2 A k1A k2A
(kl)A = k(lA) = l(kA), where k and l are scalars

([35 15 ]) [1050 450 ]

5 −5 150 −150
(5 × 6) =
(k x l) A

([35 15 ] ) ([210 90 ] ) [1050 450 ]

5 −5 30 −30 150 −150
5× 6× = 5× =
k l k
A lA

([35 15 ] ) ([175 75 ] ) [1050 450 ]

5 −5 25 −25 150 −150
6× 5× = 6× =
l k l
A kA
TOPIC 3

MATRIX
MULTIPLICATION
MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
The product AB of two matrices A and B is de ned, if

Number of columns of A = Number of rows of B

Let A = [aij]m × n and B = [bjk]n × p be the two matrices. Then,

C = [cik]m × p = AB = [aij]m × n [bjk]n × p

=

Order of resultant matrix

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MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
C = [cik]m × p = AB = [aij]m × n [bjk]n × p
=

Order of resultant matrix

To get the (i, k)th element cik of the matrix C, we take the ith row of A and kth
column of B, multiply them elementwise and take the sum of all these products
MATRIX MULTIPLICATION - METHOD
B

[4]
A [1 2]
3

1. Check for the two matrices to be eligible for matrix multiplication

B

[4]
3
A [1 2]1 × 2
2×1
=
MATRIX MULTIPLICATION - METHOD

1. Check for the two matrices to be eligible for matrix multiplication

B

[4]
3
A [1 2]1 × 2
2×1
=
2. Find the order of resultant matrix
B

[4]
3
A [1 2]1 × 2 1 × 1
2×1
MATRIX MULTIPLICATION - METHOD
2. Find the order of resultant matrix
B

[4]
3
A [1 2]1 × 2 1 × 1
2×1

3. Write the structure of the resultant matrix

[c11]1 × 1
MATRIX MULTIPLICATION - METHOD

3. Write the structure of the resultant matrix

[c11]1 × 1

4. Find the value of c11 using,

n

∑
cik = ai1b1k + ai2b2k + . . . . + ainbnk = aijbjk
j=1
MATRIX MULTIPLICATION - METHOD
4. Find the value of c11 using,
B

[4]
n
3
∑
cik = ai1b1k + ai2b2k + . . . . + ainbnk = aijbjk A [1 2]
j=1

1st Column of Matrix B

[4]
c11 = R1C1 = [1 2] 3
= (1 × 3 + 2 × 4) = 11

1st Row of Matrix A

ILLUSTRATION

[3 4] [4]
1 2 3
= ? xxy

2x2 2x1
ILLUSTRATION

[3 4] [4]
1 2 3
= ? 2x1

2x2 2x1
ILLUSTRATION

[3 4] [4] [c21]
1 2 3 c11
=
2x2 2x1 2x1

[4]
c11 = R1C1 = [1 2] 3 = (1 × 3 + 2 × 4) = 11

[4]
c21 = R2C1 = [3 4] 3
= (3 × 3 + 4 × 4) = 25

[3 4] [4] [25]
1 2 3 7
=
2x2 2x1 2x1
MATRIX MULTIPLICATION IS COMMUTATIVE ?
B

[4]
3
A [1 2]1 × 2 AB exists
^
2×1
= ^

[4]
A
3
B [1 2]1 × 2 BA exists
^
2×1
^

Result of AB is a 1 x 1 matrix and we have found that out to be = [11]1 × 1

MATRIX MULTIPLICATION IS COMMUTATIVE ? NOT NECESSARILY

[ 21 22]
c11 c12
[4]
A
3 = c c
B [1 2]1 × 2
2×1
^
2×2
^

c11 = R1C1 = [3] [1] = (3 × 1) = 3

[4 8]
c12 = R1C2 = [3] [2] = (3 × 2) = 6 3 6
=
c21 = R2C1 = [4] [1] = (4 × 1) = 4 2×2

c22 = R2C2 = [4] [2] = (4 × 2) = 8

DOES AB EXISTS → BA EXISTS ?

A B C

[3 4] [4] [25]
1 2 3 7
=
2x2 2x1 2x1

B A

[4] [3 4]
3 1 2
2x1 2x2
^ ^

≠
DOES AB EXISTS → BA EXISTS ?

‣ AB and BA are both de ned only if AB and BA are square

matrices of same order

‣ But this does not necessarily imply that AB = BA

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EXAMPLE QUESTION 11

[2 3] [7 9 8]
6 9 2 6 0
Find AB , if A = and B =
2x2 2x3

[ 21 22 23]
c11 c12 c13
C = AB = c c c
2×3
EXAMPLE QUESTION 11

[2 3] [7 9 8] [ 21 22 23]
6 9 2 6 0 c11 c12 c13
A= and B = C= c c c
2x2 2x3 2×3

[7]
c11 = R1C1 = [6 9] 2 = (6 × 2 + 9 × 7) = 75

[9]
6
c12 = R1C2 = [6 9] = (6 × 6 + 9 × 9) = 117

[8]
c13 = R1C3 = [6 9] 0 = (6 × 0 + 9 × 8) = 72
EXAMPLE QUESTION 11

[2 3] [7 9 8] [ 21 c22 c23]
6 9 2 6 0 75 117 72
C= c
A= and B =
2×3
2x2 2x3

[7]
c21 = R2C1 = [2 3] 2 = (2 × 2 + 3 × 7) = 25

[9]
6
c22 = R2C2 = [2 3] = (2 × 6 + 3 × 9) = 39

[8]
c13 = R1C3 = [2 3] 0 = (2 × 0 + 3 × 8) = 24
EXAMPLE QUESTION 13

[2 3] [7 9 8]
6 9 2 6 0
A= and B =
2x2 2x3

[ 21 c22 c23]
75 117 72
C = AB = c
2×3
PROPERTIES OF MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
1. Associative Law

[Link] Law

3. Existence of Multiplicative Identity

[Link]-Commutativity

[Link] matrix as the product of two non-zero matrices

1. ASSOCIATIVE LAW
Matrix multiplication is associative, i.e,

A(BC) = (AB)C

whenever both sides are defined

2. DISTRIBUTIVE LAW
Matrix multiplication is distributive over matrix addition, i.e,

A(B + C) = AB + AC or (A + B)C = AC + BC

whenever both sides are defined

3. EXISTENCE OF MULTIPLICATIVE IDENTITY
For every square matrix A, there exists an Identity Matrix I of
same order such that

AI = A = IA
I is the multiplicative identity for every square matrix A.
4. NON COMMUTATIVITY
In general, Matrix Multiplication is not necessarily commutative

AB = BA is not always true

Multiplication of two diagonal matrices will be commutative

5. ZERO MATRIX AS THE PRODUCT OF TWO NON-ZERO MATRICES
If the product of two matrices is a zero matrix, then it is not
necessary that either one or both matrices is a zero matrix

[0 2 ] [0 0]
0 −1 3 5
Let A = and B =

[0 2 ] [0 0] [0 0]
0 −1 3 5 0 0
Then, AB = =

But neither A nor B ≠ 0

POSITIVE INTEGRAL POWERS OF A SQUARE MATRIX
If we multiply a square matrix by itself, then we will get the positive integral
powers of the square matrix

1
A =A
2
A = A.A
3 2
A = A .A = A.A.A
n n−1
A = A .A

n
I = I for any positive integer n, where I is the identity matrix
TOPIC 4

TRANSPOSE, SYMMETRY
& SKEW SYMMETRY
TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
The matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of matrix A is
called transpose of matrix.
′ c T
The transpose of a matrix is denoted by A or A or A
Let A = [aij] be the matrix of order say m x n. Then,

T
A = [aji]n × m


 TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
Let A = [aij] be the matrix of order say m x n. Then,
T
A = [aji]n × m

[4 5 6]
1 2 3
A= Write A’ by interchanging rows and columns of A
(2 x 3)

1 4
′
A= 2 5
3 6
(3 x 2)

PROPERTIES OF TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX

1. (A ) = A ′ ′

′
2. (A ± B) = A′ ± B′

3. (kA) = kA′
′

′
4. (AB) = B′A′ Reversal Law

5. (A ) = (A ) n ′ ′ n












SYMMETRIC MATRIX
Let A = [aij]n × n be a square matrix, then, A is said to be symmetric if

′
A =A i . e . , [aij] = [aji], ∀ i and j

1 2 3
A= 2 3 4
3 4 5

 SYMMETRIC MATRIX
1 2 3
A= 2 3 4
3 4 5
Write A’ by interchanging rows and columns of A

1 2 3 Hence, A is a symmetric matrix

′
A= 2 3 4 = A ′
3 4 5 [ ∵ A = A]


SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRIX
Let A = [aij]n × n be a square matrix, then, A is said to be skew-symmetric if

′
A =−A i . e . , [aji] = − [aij], ∀ i and j

0 1 2
A= −1 0 5
−2 −5 0

 SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRIX
0 1 2
A= −1 0 5
−2 −5 0
Write A’ by interchanging rows and columns of A

0 −1 −2 Hence, A is a skew-symmetric matrix

′
A= 1 0 −5 = −A ′
2 5 0 [ ∵ A = − A]


SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRIX
Principle diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix is always 0

aaijij =
=−− aajiji [[ ∵
∵ matrix is skew symmetric]
-

For diagonal elements i = j

aii = − aii
2aii = 0
aii = 0, ∀ i
 BOTH SYMMETRIC & SKEW SYMMETRIC MATRIX ?
Let A be a square matrix of order m x n and it is both symmetric and
skew-symmetric

Eg.
A′ = A [ ∵ matrix is symmetric]
[0 0]
0 0
A′ = − A [ ∵ matrix is skew-symmetric]
Also, principe diagonal elements are zero 0 0 0
[0 0 0]
0 0 0
A = − A ⟹ A is a zero matrix


THEOREM 1

For a square matrix A with a real number entries,

A + A′ is symmetric
A − A′ is a skew- symmetric


THEOREM 2
A square matrix A can be expressed as sum of a symmetric and skew-symmetric
matrix,

1 1
A = ( A + A′ ) + ( A − A′ )
2 2

{
Symmetric Matrix

Skew-Symmetric Matrix


TOPIC 5

ELEMENTARY
OPERATIONS
INTERCHANGE OF ANY TWO ROWS OR TWO COLUMNS

Ri ↔ Rj
1 2 3 4 5 6
A= 4 5 6 R1 ↔ R2 A= 1 2 3
7 8 9 7 8 9

Ci ↔ Cj
1 2 3 2 1 3
A= 4 5 6
C1 ↔ C2 A= 5 4 6
7 8 9 8 7 9
MULTIPLICATION OF ELEMENTS OF ANY ROW/COLUMN BY A NON-ZERO NUMBER

Ri ↔ kRi where k ≠ 0
4 8 12 1 1 2 3
A= 4 5 6 R1 ↔ R1 A= 4 5 6
7 8 9 4 7 8 9

Ci ↔ kCi where k ≠ 0
4 4 7 1 4 7
1
A= 8 5 8 C1 ↔ C1 A= 2 5 8
12 6 9 4 3 6 9
Ri ↔ Ri + kRj / Ci ↔ Ci + kCj

Ri ↔ Ri + kRj where k ≠ 0
1 2 3 1 2 3
A= 4 5 6 R2 ↔ R2 − 2R1 A = (4 − 2(1) (5 − 2(2) (6 − 2(3)
7 8 9 7 8 9

=
1 2 3
A= 2 1 0
7 8 9
Ri ↔ Ri + kRj / Ci ↔ Ci + kCj

Ci ↔ Ci + kCj where k ≠ 0
1 4 7 1 (4 − 2(1) 7
A= 2 5 8 C2 ↔ C2 − 2C1 A= 2 (5 − 2(2) 8
3 6 9 3 (6 − 2(3) 9

=
1 2 7
[3 0 9]
A= 2 1 8
APPLICATION OF ELEMENTARY TRANSFORMATIONS

Elementary transformation techniques are applied to nd the

inverse of a matrix

Inverse of a matrix ?

fi
TOPIC 6

INVERTIBLE
MATRICES
INVERTIBLE MATRIX

A square matrix of order n × n is said to be invertible, if there exists

another square matrix B of same order n × n, such that

AB = BA = I

−1
The matrix B, is called inverse of matrix A and is denoted by A
INVERTIBLE MATRIX
For Example,

[7 4] [−7 9 ]
9 5 4 −5
A= B=

[7 4] [−7 9 ]
9 5 4 −5
AB = ×

[((7 × 4) + (4 × −7)) ((7 × −5) + (4 × −9))] [(28 − 28) (−35 + 36)]

((9 × 4) + (5 × −7)) ((9 × −5) + (5 × 9)) (36 − 35) (−45 + 45)
= =

[0 1]
1 0
= = I
INVERTIBLE MATRIX

[−7 9 ] [7 4]
4 −5 9 5 ×
BA =

[((−7 × 9) + (9 × 7)) ((−7 × 5) + (9 × 4))] [(−63 − 63) (−35 + 36)]

((4 × 9) + (−5 × 7)) ((4 × 5) + (−5 × 4)) (36 − 35) (20 − 20)
= =

[0 1]
1 0
= = I = AB

−1
Hence, A is invertible and A =B
INVERTIBLE MATRIX

A rectangular matrix does not have an inverse matrix. Why ?

For inverse to exist, product of the matrix and the inverse
−1
needs to be commutative i.e. AB = I = BA where A = B

For matrix multiplication to exist and have a chance of

being commutative, the two matrices involved need to be
square matrices.
INVERTIBLE MATRIX

If B is the inverse of A, then A is the inverse of B

−1
AB = I = BA [ ∵ A =B] i

Write i from right to left

−1
BA = I = AB ⟹ B =A
THEOREM 1 - UNIQUENESS OF INVERSE

Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique

Proof Let A be the square matrix such that it’s inverse exists.

Let B and C be two inverses of A.

Then, we need to show B = C to establish uniqueness

−1
AB = I = BA [ ∵ A =B] i

−1
AC = I = CA [ ∵ A =C] ii
THEOREM 1 - UNIQUENESS OF INVERSE
−1
AB = I = BA [ ∵ A =B] i
−1
AC = I = CA [ ∵ A =C] ii

B can be written as B = BI
B = B(AC) [using Equation ii ]
B = (BA)C [applying associative law of matrix
multiplication]
B = IC [using Equation i ]

B=C Hence Proved

THEOREM 2
If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order then,
−1 −1 −1
(AB) =B A
−1
Proof (AB)(AB) = I [by de nition of matrix inverse]
−1 −1 −1 −1
A (AB)(AB) = A I [pre-multiplying both sides by A ]
−1 −1 −1
(A A)B(AB) = A [applying associative law of
matrix multiplication]

−1 −1
IB(AB) = A
fi
THEOREM 2 - PROOF CONTINUED
−1
(AB)(AB) = I [by de nition of matrix inverse]
−1 −1 −1 −1
A (AB)(AB) = A I [pre-multiplying both sides by A ]
−1 −1 −1
(A A)B(AB) = A [associative law of matrix multiplication]
−1 −1
IB(AB) = A
−1 −1
B(AB) = A
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1
B B(AB) = B A [pre-multiplying both sides by B ]
−1 −1 −1
I(AB) = B A
−1 −1 −1
(AB) = B A Hence Proved
fi
PROBLEM BASED ON THEOREM 2
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1
If (AB) = A B then prove that A and B satisfy commutative
property with respect to matrix multiplication,

−1 −1 −1
Proof (AB) =A B [Given]
−1 −1 −1
(AB) =B A [by theorem 2]
−1 −1 −1 −1
A B =B A
−1 −1
Hence, A and B satisfy commutative property with respect to
matrix multiplication,
INVERSE OF A 3 X 3 SQUARE MATRIX BY ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS
a11 a12 a13 1 0 0 A = IA
[ ]
a21 a22 a23 = 0 1 0 A
a31 a32 a33 0 0 1
Elementary Row Operations

Elementary Row Operations

I = BA

1 0 0 b b b −1
11 12 13
B=A
[0 0 1]
0 1 0 = b21 b22 b23 A
b31 b32 b33
EXAMPLE QUESTION 14.
Find the inverse of the matrix A using elementary row operations

0 1 2
[3 1 1]
A= 1 2 3
 (1) a11 = 1
a11 a12 a13 0 1 2 1 0 0
[3 1 1] [0 0 1]
1 0 0
[0 0 1]
a21 a22 a23 = 0 1 0 A 1 2 3 = 0 1 0 A
a31 a32 a33
a11 = 0
If a11 ≠ 0, then make a11 = 1 by applying 1 1 (a is 1,
R2 ↔ R2 = R2 ↔ R2 21
1 a21 1 this can be skipped)
R1 ↔ R1 0 1 2 1 0 0
a11
[3 1 1] [0 0 1]
1 1 2 3 = 0 1 0 A
If a11 = 0, then apply R2 ↔ R2 or
a21
R1 ↔ R2
( a31 )
1
R3 ↔ R3 to make a21 = 1 (or a31 = 1)
1 2 3 0 1 0
[3 1 1] [0 0 1]
0 1 2 = 1 0 0 A
and then apply R1 ↔ R2 (or R1 ↔ R3)
(2) a21 = 0 and a31 = 0
1 2 3 0 1 0
a11 a12 a13
[3 1 1] [0 0 1]
1 0 0 0 1 2 = 1 0 0 A

[0 0 1]
a21 a22 a23 = 0 1 0 A
a31 a32 a33 a21 is 0. So, no operation is required
R3 ↔ R3 − a31R1 R3 ↔ R3 − 3R1
Make a21 = 0 by applying
1 2 3 0 1 0
R2 ↔ R2 − a21R1 0 1 2 = 1 0 0 A
(3 − 3(1)) (1 − 3(2)) (1 − 3(3)) (0 − 3(0)) (0 − 3(1)) (1 − 3(0))

Make a31 = 0 by applying

1 2 3 0 1 0
[ ]
R3 ↔ R3 − a31R1 0 1 2 = 1 0 0 A
0 −5 −8 0 −3 1
(3) a22 = 1
a11 a12 a13 1 0 0 1 2 3 0 1 0
[ ]
[0 0 1]
0 1 2 = 1 0 0 A
a21 a22 a23 = 0 1 0 A 0 −5 −8 0 −3 1
a31 a32 a33
a22 is 1. So, no operation is required
Make a22 = 1 by applying
1
R2 ↔ R2
a22
(4) a12 = 0 and a32 = 0
a11 a12 a13 1 0 0
1 2 3 0 1 0
[ ]
[0 0 1]
0 1 2 = 1 0 0 A
a21 a22 a23 = 0 1 0 A 0 −5 −8 0 −3 1
a31 a32 a33 R1 ↔ R1 − a12R2 R1 ↔ R1 − 2R2
(1 − 2(0)) (2 − 2(1)) (3 − 2(2)) (0 − 2(1)) (1 − 2(0)) (0 − 2(0))
Make a12 = 0 by applying 0 1 2 = 1 0 0 A
0 −5 8 0 −3 1
R1 ↔ R1 − a12R2 1 0 −1 −2 1 0
[ ]
0 1 2 = 1 0 0 A
0 −5 −8 0 −3 1
Make a32 = 0 by applying
R3 ↔ R3 − a32R2 R3 ↔ R3 + 5R2
R3 ↔ R3 − a32R2 1 0 −1 −2 1 0
0 1 2 = 1 0 0 A
0 (−5 + 5(1)) (−8 + 5(2)) (0 + 5(1)) (−3 + 5(0)) (1 + 5(0))

1 0 −1 −2 1 0
[0 0 2 ]
0 1 2 = 1 0 0 A
5 −3 1
(5) a33 = 1
1 0 −1 −2 1 0
a11 a12 a13
[0 0 2 ]
1 0 0
[0 0 1]
0 1 2 = 1 0 0 A
a21 a22 a23 = 0 1 0 A 5 −3 1
a31 a32 a33 1 1
R3 ↔ R3 R3 ↔ R3
a33 2
Make a33 = 1 by applying
1 1 0 −1 −2 1 0

[0 0 1 ]
R3 ↔ R3 0 1 2 = 1 0 0 A
a33 5
2
−3
2
1
2
(6) a13 = 0 and a23 = 0
a11 a12 a13 1 0 0 1 0 −1 −2 1 0

[0 0 1]
[0 0 1 ]
0 1 2 = 1 0 0 A
a21 a22 a23 = 0 1 0 A 5
2
−3
2
1
2

a31 a32 a33 R1 ↔ R1 − a12 R2 R1 ↔ R1 + R3

(1 + 1(0)) (0 + 1(0)) (−1 + 1(1)) (−2 + 1( 52 ) (1 + 1( −3

2
) (0 + 1( 1
2
)
0 1 2 = 1 0 0 A
Make a13 = 0 by applying 0 0 1 0 −3 1
1 −1 1

R1 ↔ R1 − a13R3
1 0 0 2 2 2

[0 0 1]
0 1 2 = 1 0 0 A
5 −3 1
2 2 2

Make a32 = 0 by applying R2 ↔ R2 − a23R3 R2 ↔ R2 − 2R3

R2 ↔ R2 − a23R3
1 −1 1
1 0 0 2 2 2
5 −3 1
(0 − 2(0)) (1 − 2(0)) (2 − 2(1)) = (1 − 2( 2 )) (0 − ( 2 )) (0 − ( 2 )) A
0 0 1 5 −3 1
2 2 2

1 −1 1
1 0 0 2 2 2

[0 0 1]
0 1 0 = −4 3 −1 A
5 −3 1
2 2 2
INVERSE OF A 3 X 3 SQUARE MATRIX BY ELEMENTARY COLUMN OPERATIONS
a11 a12 a13 1 0 0 A = AI
[ ]
a21 a22 a23 = A 0 1 0
a31 a32 a33 0 0 1
Elementary Column Operations

Elementary ColumnOperations
I = AB

1 0 0 b11 b12 b13

[0 0 1]
−1
0 1 0 = A b21 b22 b23 B=A
b31 b32 b33
EXAMPLE QUESTION 15.
Find the inverse of the matrix A using elementary column operations

0 1 2
[3 1 1]
A= 1 2 3
 (1) a11 = 1
a11 a12 a13 0 1 2 1 0 0
[3 1 1] [0 0 1]
1 0 0
[0 0 1]
a21 a22 a23 = A 0 1 0 1 2 3 =A 0 1 0
a31 a32 a33
a11 = 0
If a11 ≠ 0, then make a11 = 1 by applying 1 1 (a is 1,
C2 ↔ C2 = C2 ↔ C2 12
1 a12 1 this can be skipped)
C1 ↔ C1 0 1 2 1 0 0
a11
[3 1 1] [0 0 1]
1 1 2 3 = 0 1 0 A
If a11 = 0, then apply C2 ↔ C2 or
a12
C1 ↔ C2
( a13 )
1
C3 ↔ C3 to make a12 = 1 (or a13 = 1)
1 0 2 0 1 0
[1 3 1] [0 0 1]
2 1 3 = 1 0 0 A
and then apply C1 ↔ C2 (or C1 ↔ C3)
(2) a12 = 0 and a13 = 0
1 0 2 0 1 0
[1 3 1] [0 0 1]
a11 a12 a13 1 0 0 2 1 3 = 1 0 0 A
[0 0 1]
a21 a22 a23 = A 0 1 0
a31 a32 a33 a12 is 0. So, no operation is required
C3 ↔ C3 − a13C1 C3 ↔ C3 − 2C1
Make a12 = 0 by applying
1 0 (2 − 2(2)) 0 1 (0 − 2(0))
C2 ↔ C2 − a12C1 2 1 (3 − 2(2)) = 1 0 (0 − 2(1)) A
1 3 (1 − 2(1)) 0 0 (1 − 2(0))

Make a31 = 0 by applying

1 0 0 0 1 0
C3 ↔ C3 − a13C1 [1 3 −1] [0 0 1 ]
2 1 −1 = 1 0 −2 A
(3) a22 = 1
a11 a12 a13 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
[1 3 −1] [0 0 1 ]
[0 0 1]
2 1 −1 = 1 0 −2 A
a21 a22 a23 = A 0 1 0
a31 a32 a33
a22 is 1. So, no operation is required
Make a22 = 1 by applying
1
C2 ↔ C2
a22
(4) a21 = 0 and a23 = 0
a11 a12 a13 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
[1 3 −1] [0 0 1 ]

[0 0 1]
2 1 −1 = 1 0 −2 A
a21 a22 a23 = A 0 1 0
a31 a32 a33 C1 ↔ C1 − a21C2 C1 ↔ C1 − 2C2
(1 − 2(0)) 0 0 (0 − 2(1)) 1 0
(2 − 2(1)) 1 −1 = (1 − 2(0)) 0 −2 A
Make a21 = 0 by applying (1 − 2(3)) 3 −1 (0 − 2(0)) 0 1

1 0 0 −2 1 0
C1 ↔ C1 − a21C2 [
0 1 −1 = 1 0 −2 A
]
−5 3 −1 0 0 1
C3 ↔ C3 − a23C2 C3 ↔ C3 + C2
Make a23 = 0 by applying 1 0 (0 + 0) −2 1 (0 + 1)
0 1 (−1 + 1) = 1 0 (−2 + 0) A
−5 3 (−1 + 3) 0 0 (1 + 0)
C3 ↔ C3 − a23C2
1 0 0 −2 1 1
[ ]
0 1 0 = 1 0 −2 A
−5 3 2 0 0 1
(5) a33 = 1
a11 a12 a13 1 0 0 1 0 0 −2 1 1
[ ]
[0 0 1]
0 1 0 = 1 0 −2 A
a21 a22 a23 = A 0 1 0
−5 3 2 0 0 1
a31 a32 a33
1 1
C3 ↔ C3 = C3 ↔ C3
Make a33 = 1 by applying a33 2
1
C3 ↔ C3 1 0 2
−2 1 1

a33
2 2
2 −2
0 1 2
= 1 0 2
A
2 1
−5 3 2
0 0 2

1
1 0 0 −2 1 2
0 1 0 = 1 0 −1 A
−5 3 1 0 0 2
1
(6) a31 = 0 and a32 = 0
1
1 0 0 −2 1
a11 a12 a13 1 0 0
2

[0 0 1]
0 1 0 = 1 0 −1 A
a21 a22 a23 = A 0 1 0 −5 3 1 1
0 0 2

a31 a32 a33 C1 ↔ C1 − a31C3 C1 ↔ C1 + 5C3

5 1
(1 + 0) 0 0 (−2 + 2
) 1 2
(0 + 0) 1 0 = (1 − 5) 0 −1 A
Make a31 = 0 by applying (−5 + 5) 3 1 5
(0 + 2 ) 0 1
2

C1 ↔ C1 − a31C3
1 1
1 0 0 12 2

[0 3 1]
0 1 0 = −4 0 −1 A
5 1
2
0 2
Make a32 = 0 by applying C2 ↔ C2 − a32C3 C2 ↔ C2 − 3C3
1 3 1
1 (0 − 0) 0 (1 − 2 )
C2 ↔ C2 − a32C3
2 2
0 (1 − 0) 0 = −4 (0 + 3) −1 A
0 (3 − 3) 1 5 3 1
(0 − 2 ) 2
2
1 −1 1
1 0 0 2 2 2

[0 1 1]
0 1 0 = −4 3 −1 A
5 −3 1
2 2 2
 −1
ELEMENTARY OPERATIONS - CASE OF A NOT EXISTING

When we get all zeroes in one or more rows/columns after applying

a sequence of row/column operations on the matrix A on the LHS,
−1
then A does not exist