3.

1 The Determinant of a Matrix

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Objectives
 Find the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix.

 Find the minors and cofactors of a matrix.

 Use expansion by cofactors to find the

determinant of a matrix.

 Find the determinant of a triangular matrix.

2
The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix

3
The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix (1
of 1)
Definition of the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix
The determinant of the matrix

is det(A) =

4
Example 1 – Determinants of Matrices of Order 2

a. For

b. For

c. For

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Minors and Cofactors

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Minors and Cofactors (1 of 1)
Minors and Cofactors of a Square Matrix
If A is a square matrix, then the minor Mij of the entry aij is
the determinant of the matrix obtained by deleting the ith
row and jth column of A. The cofactor Cij of the entry aij is

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Example 2 – Minors and Cofactors of a Matrix3

Find all the minors and cofactors of

Solution:
To find the minor M11, delete the first row and first column of
A and evaluate the determinant of the resulting matrix.

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Example 2 – Solution
Verify that the minors are
M11 = −1 M12 = −5 M13 = 4
M21 = 2 M22 = −4 M23 = −8
M31 = 5 M32 = −3 M33 = −6

Now, to find the cofactors, combine these minors with the

checkerboard pattern of signs for a 3 × 3 matrix shown above.

C11 = −1 C12 = 5 C13 = 4

C21 = −2 C22 = −4 C23 = 8
C31 = 5 C32 = 3 C33 = −6
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The Determinant of a Square Matrix

10
The Determinant of a Square Matrix (1 of 2)

Definition of the Determinant of a Square Matrix

If A is a square matrix of order n ≥ 2, then the determinant
of A is the sum of the entries in the first row of A multiplied
by their respective cofactors. That is,

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The Determinant of a Square Matrix (2 of 2)

Theorem 3.1 Expansion by Cofactors

Let A be a square matrix of order n. Then the determinant
of A is

or

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Example 4 – The Determinant of a Matrix of Order 4

Find the determinant of

Solution:
Notice that three of the entries in the third column are
zeros. So, to eliminate some of the work in the expansion,
use the third column.

13
Example 4 – Solution (1 of 2)
The cofactors C23, C33, and C43 have zero coefficients, so
you need only find the cofactor C13. To do this, delete the
first row and third column of A and evaluate the determinant
of the resulting matrix.

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Example 4 – Solution (2 of 2)
Expanding by cofactors in the second row yields

You obtain

15
Triangular Matrices

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Triangular Matrices (1 of 2)
A square matrix is upper triangular when it has all zero
entries below its main diagonal, and lower triangular when it
has all zero entries above its main diagonal, as shown in the
diagram at the left.

A matrix that is both upper and lower triangular is a

diagonal matrix. That is, a diagonal matrix is one in which
all entries above and below the main diagonal are zero.

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Triangular Matrices (2 of 2)
Theorem 3.2 Determinant of a Triangular Matrix
If A is a triangular matrix of order n, then its determinant is
the product of the entries on the main diagonal. That is,

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Example 6 – The Determinant of a Triangular Matrix

The determinant of the lower triangular matrix

is

19
 Determinants and
3.2
Elementary Operations

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Objectives
 Use elementary row operations to evaluate a
determinant.

 Use elementary column operations to evaluate a

determinant.

 Recognize conditions that yield zero

determinants.

21
Determinants and Elementary Row Operations

22
Determinants and Elementary Row Operations (1 of 1)

Theorem 3.3 Elementary Row Operations and

Determinants
Let A and B be square matrices.
1. When B is obtained from A by interchanging two rows of
A, det(B) = −det(A).
2. When B is obtained from A by adding a multiple of a
row of A to another row of A, det(B) = det(A).
3. When B is obtained from A by multiplying a row of A by
a nonzero constant c, det(B) = c det(A).

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Example 2 – Finding a Determinant Using Elementary Row Operations

Find the determinant of

Solution:
Using elementary row operations, rewrite A in triangular
form as shown below.

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Example 2 – Solution

The above matrix is triangular, so the determinant is

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Determinants and Elementary Column
Operations

26
Determinants and Elementary Column Operations (1 of 1)

Operations performed on the columns (rather than on the

rows) of a matrix are elementary column operations, and
two matrices are column-equivalent when one can be
obtained from the other by elementary column operations.

27
Example 3 – Finding a Determinant Using Elementary Column Operations

Find the determinant of

Solution:
The first two columns of A are multiples of each other, so
you can obtain a column of zeros by adding 2 times the first
column to the second column, as shown below.

28
Example 3 – Solution
At this point, you do not need to rewrite the matrix in triangular
form, because there is an entire column of zeros. Simply
conclude that the determinant is zero. Specifically, by
expanding by cofactors in the second column, you have

29
Matrices and Zero Determinants

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Matrices and Zero Determinants (1 of 1)
Theorem 3.4 Conditions That Yield a Zero Determinant
If A is a square matrix and any one of the conditions below
is true, then det(A) = 0.
1. An entire row (or an entire column) consists of zeros.
2. Two rows (or columns) are equal.
3. One row (or column) is a multiple of another row (or
column).

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Example 4 – A Matrix with a Zero Determinant

Find the determinant of`

Solution:
Adding −2 times the first row to the second row produces

The second and third rows are multiples of each other, so

the determinant is zero.
32
3.3 Properties of Determinants

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Objectives
 Find the determinant of a matrix product and a
scalar multiple of a matrix.

 Find the determinant of an inverse matrix and

recognize equivalent conditions for a nonsingular
matrix.

 Find the determinant of the transpose of a matrix.

34
Matrix Products and Scalar Multiples

35
Example 1 – The Determinant of a Matrix Product

Find and for the matrices

Solution:
and have the values

36
Example 1 – Solution
The matrix product AB is

Finally,

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Matrix Products and Scalar Multiples (1 of 1)

Theorem 3.5 Determinant of a Matrix Product

If A and B are square matrices of order n, then det(AB) =
det(A) det(B).

Theorem 3.6 Determinant of a Scalar Multiple of a

Matrix
If A is a square matrix of order n and c is a scalar, then the
determinant of cA is

38
Example 2 – The Determinant of a Scalar Multiple of a Matrix

Find the determinant of the matrix.

Solution:

so apply Theorem 3.6 to conclude that

39
Determinants and the Inverse of a Matrix

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Determinants and the Inverse of a Matrix (1 of 2)

Theorem 3.7 Determinant of an Invertible Matrix

A square matrix A is invertible (nonsingular) if and only if
det(A) ≠ 0.

Theorem 3.8 Determinant of an Inverse Matrix

If A is an n × n invertible matrix, then

41
Example 4 – The Determinant of the Inverse of a Matrix

Find for the matrix

Solution:
One way to solve this problem is to find and then
evaluate its determinant. It is easier, however, to apply
Theorem 3.8 as shown below. Find the determinant of A,

and then use the formula to conclude that

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Determinants and the Inverse of a Matrix (2 of 2)

Equivalent Conditions for a Nonsingular Matrix

If A is an n × n matrix, then the statements below are
equivalent.
1. A is invertible.
2. Ax = b has a unique solution for every n × 1 column
matrix b.
3. Ax = O has only the trivial solution.
4. A is row-equivalent to In.
5. A can be written as the product of elementary matrices.
6. det(A) ≠ 0

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Determinants and the Transpose of a Matrix

44
Determinants and the Transpose of a Matrix (1 of 1)

Theorem 3.9 Determinant of a Transpose

If A is a square matrix, then

45
Example 6 – The Determinant of a transpose

Show that for the matrix below.

Solution:
To find the determinant of A, expand by cofactors in the
second row to obtain

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Example 6 – Solution
To find the determinant of

expand by cofactors in the second column to obtain

47
3.4 Applications of Determinants

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Objectives
 Find the adjoint of a matrix and use it to find the
inverse of the matrix.

 Use Cramer’s Rule to solve a system of n linear

equations in n variables.

 Use determinants to find area, volume, and the

equations of lines and planes.

49
The Adjoint of a Matrix

50
The Adjoint of a Matrix (1 of 3)
The cofactor Cij of a square matrix A is times the
determinant of the matrix obtained by deleting the ith row
and jth column of A.

The matrix of cofactors of A has the form

51
The Adjoint of a Matrix (2 of 3)
The transpose of this matrix is the adjoint of A and is
denoted adj(A).

That is,

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Example 1 – Finding the Adjoint of a Square Matrix

Find the adjoint of A =

Solution:
The cofactor C11 is

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Example 1 – Solution
Continuing this process produces the matrix of cofactors of
A shown below.

The transpose of this matrix is the adjoint of A.

That is, adj(A) =

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The Adjoint of a Matrix (3 of 3)
Theorem 3.10 The Inverse of a Matrix Using Its Adjoint

If A is an n × n invertible matrix, then

55
Example 2 – Using the Adjoint of a Matrix to Find Its Inverse

Use the adjoint of A to find

Solution:
The determinant of this matrix is 3.

56
Example 2 – Solution
Using the adjoint of A, the inverse of A is

Check that this matrix is the inverse of A by showing that

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Cramer’s Rule

58
Cramer’s Rule (1 of 1)
Theorem 3.11 Cramer’s rule
If a system of n linear equations in n variables has a
coefficient matrix A with a nonzero determinant , then
the solution of the system is

where the ith column of Ai is the column of constants in the

system of equations.

59
Example 4 – Using Cramer’s Rule
Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the system of linear equations
for x.

Solution:
The determinant of the coefficient matrix is

60
Example 4 – Solution
The determinant is nonzero, so you know that the solution is
unique. Apply Cramer’s Rule to solve for x, as shown below.

61
Area, Volume, and Equations of Lines and Planes

62
Area, Volume, and Equations of Lines and Planes (1 of 6)

Area of a Triangle in the xy-Plane

The area of a triangle with vertices
(x1, y1), (x2, y2), and (x3, y3)
is

where the sign (±) is chosen to give a positive area.

63
Area, Volume, and Equations of Lines and Planes (2 of 6)

Test for Collinear Points in the xy-Plane

Three points (x1, y1), (x2, y2), and (x3, y3) are collinear if
and only if

64
Area, Volume, and Equations of Lines and Planes (3 of 6)

Two-Point Form of an Equation of a Line

An equation of the line passing through the distinct points
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is

65
Example 6 – Finding an Equation of the Line Passing Through Two Points

Find an equation of the line passing through the points (2, 4)

and (−1, 3).

Solution:
Let (x1, y1) = (2, 4) and (x2, y2) = (−1, 3). Applying the
determinant formula for an equation of a line produces

66
Example 6 – Solution
To evaluate this determinant, expand by cofactors in the first
row.

So, an equation of the line is x − 3y = −10.

67
Area, Volume, and Equations of Lines and Planes (4 of 6)

Volume of a Tetrahedron
The volume of a tetrahedron with vertices (x1, y1, z1),
(x2, y2, z2), (x3, y3, z3), and (x4, y4, z4) is

where the sign (±) is chosen to give a positive volume.

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Example 7 – Finding the Volume of a Tetrahedron

Find the volume of the tetrahedron shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3

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Example 7 – Solution
Using the determinant formula for the volume of a
tetrahedron produces

So, the volume of the tetrahedron is 12 cubic units.

70
Area, Volume, and Equations of Lines and Planes (5 of 6)

Test for Coplanar Points in Space

Four points (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2), (x3, y3, z3), and (x4, y4, z4)
are coplanar if and only if

71
Area, Volume, and Equations of Lines and Planes (6 of 6)

Three-Point Form of an Equation of a Plane

An equation of the plane passing through the distinct
points (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2), and (x3, y3, z3) is

72
Example 8 – Finding an Equation of the Plane Passing Through Three points

Find an equation of the plane passing through the points

(0, 1, 0), (−1, 3, 2), and (−2, 0, 1).

Solution:
Using the determinant form of an equation of a plane
produces

73
Example 8 – Solution (1 of 2)
To evaluate this determinant, subtract the fourth column
from the second column to obtain

Expand by cofactors in the second row.

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Example 8 – Solution (2 of 2)

This produces the equation

75